Approaches Flashcards
Who was Wundt?
The ‘father of psychology’
What did Wundt do?
Opened first lab in Leipzig, used introspection to study consciousness
What is introspection?
A method where subjects analyse their own thoughts and feelings in relation to a stimulus (studies sensation and perception) using a standardised procedure
What are the limitations of introspection?
Subjective, unfalsifiable
How did Wundt attempt to make introspection scientific?
He used standardised procedures in a controlled environment
What features make something a science? (5)
Hypothesis testing, Objectivity, Replicability, Falsifiability, Empirical
Which approaches take the most scientific (nomothetic) approach to psychology?
Behaviourist, Cognitive, Biological
Which approaches take the least scientific approach to psychology?
Humanistic, Psychodynamic
What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach? (3)
All behaviour is learnt, Animals and humans learn in the same way, We a born a blank slate
How would you describe the research methods used by the behaviourist approach?
Use experimental method, with animals as subjects, looking for quantifiable behaviour
Who proposed classical conditioning as a way of learning?
Pavlov
How was Classical conditioning first identified?
Pavlov’s dogs study – salivating at the sound of a bell that indicated food was coming.
Describe the process of classical conditioning (you don’t have to use an example).
Unconditioned Stimulus –> Unconditioned Response (usually a pre existing reflex, but can be a previously learnt behaviour), Neutral Stimulus à No response, US + NS –> UR (repeated pairing of these means eventually the NS becomes…), Conditioned Stimulus –> Conditioned Response
What is generalisation in Classical conditioning?
When stimuli similar to the original CS produce the same response
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
Where the CR stops being produced by the CS
Who proposed operant conditioning as a way of learning?
Skinner
How would you explain the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning is learning by association, operant conditioning is learning by reinforcement
List the three types of reinforcement key to explaining operant conditioning.
Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement, Punishment
Outline positive reinforcement in operant conditioning.
Behaviour is more likely to be repeated as a result of reward
Outline negative reinforcement in operant conditioning.
Behaviour is more likely to be repeated as a result of removing a negative stimulus
Outline punishment in operant conditioning.
Behaviour is less likely to be repeated as a result of addition of a negative stimulus
What element of psychopathology have we explained with the behaviourist approach?
Phobias
What is the strength of the behaviourist approach?
Lots of experimental evidence à scientific credibility, Application to treatment of phobias and modification of problematic behaviour (dealing with offending)
What are the problems with the behaviourist approach?
Generalising from animal studies, Ethical issues associated with animal research, Reductionist & deterministic
Which side of the nature nurture debate is the behaviourist approach on?
Nurture
What is the name given to psychologists who subscribe to the behaviourist approach?
Empiricists
What is the learning approach developed by Bandura called?
Social learning theory
What are the assumptions of Social Learning theory?
The same as the behaviourist approach + addition of the importance of role models
Describe the key idea behind SLT.
We learn a lot of behaviour through role models using cognitive mediational processes.
Explain the role of modelling and where our role models come from in SLT.
We observe and imitate a role model, this requires us to identify with that role model. This is more likely if they are the same gender as ourselves, considered attractive, or are of higher social status.
Describe vicarious reinforcement in SLT.
We learn by seeing others rewarded for a behaviour and then imitate those behaviours that are rewarded.
What are the 4 mediational processes in SLT?
Attention, Retention, Motor reproduction, Motivation
Describe how the 4 mediation processes in SLT relate to learning and performing behaviours we have observed.
Learning = attention – see the behaviour, and retention – remember the behaviour and its consequences, Performance = motor reproduction – consideration of our ability to reproduce the behaviour, and motivation – whether we want to perform the behaviour or not (largely based on whether we saw it reinforced or not)
Outline the procedure for Bandura’s original research which formed the basis of SLT.
Studied learnt aggression, 36 boys and 36 girls, matched pairs design, 3 conditions, 1) Adult hits BoBo doll, 2) Adult ignores BoBo doll and plays nicely with other toys, 3) No adult models, Children put into play room and observed for 20 minutes
Outline the findings of Bandura’s original research for SLT.
Children exposed to aggressive role models also played aggressively, children with non-aggressive role models also played non-aggressively. Children without a role model were slightly more aggressive in their play than the non-aggressive children.
What conclusion was drawn from Bandura’s original research for SLT?
Aggressive behaviour is learnt through imitation of role models.
As well as his original BoBo doll study, what other versions did Bandura conduct?
Children saw the adults playing aggressively/non-aggressively on TV. Children saw fantasy characters playing aggressively/non-aggressively.
What conclusions was Bandura able to draw from his extra variations of the BoBo doll study?
The role model does not have to be physically present for imitation to occur. Imitation is more likely when the role model is the same gender as the observer, but this is not essential.
What are the strengths of Bandura’s BoBo doll study?
Well controlled, so high reliability and replication
What are the weaknesses of Bandura’s BoBo doll study?
Low ecological validity, Hard to generalise (all children from same school), Possible demand characteristics
Which two approaches is Bandura trying to combine in SLT?
Behaviourist and Cognitive
What are the implications of SLT?
Need to look carefully at role models provided for children – need for male teachers, look at the media, behaviour of those in high profile positions needs to recognise influence it can have (could link to criminal behaviour)
What are the strengths of SLT?
Less reductionist than behaviourism – recognises a role for cognitive processes, Has experimental evidence, Can explain cultural differences
What are the weaknesses of SLT?
Ignores biological factors (still reductionist), Basis in lab studies
What are the key ideas underlying the cognitive approach?
Behaviour results from cognitive processes e.g. perception, language, attention, memory, Inferences about processes can be made from examining resulting behaviours, Mind functions like a computer, Schemas
What types of research methods would cognitive psychologists use?
Lab, field and natural experiments, Occasionally introspection, Some use of brain imaging in cog. neuroscience
Describe the cognitive computer analogy.
Information enters through senses, like computers use a keyboard, Signals are passed through the brain (neurons) like wires in computers, The brain acts like the central processor in a computer, encoding and storing information, Information is passed back out of the brain for action (retrieval) like output to a computer monitor
What is a schema and what purpose does it have?
A schema is a model that contains all needed information about an object, action of concept, learned through experiences (3 types – role, event and self). These allow us to make mental shortcuts to process information more quickly and to prevent us being overwhelmed by incoming stimuli.
What are the limitations of the computer analogy used in the cognitive approach?
Ignores role of emotion, Human memory is unreliable, computer memory is not, Humans are thought to have at least some free will, computers do not
How do schemas change as we learn?
Begin with basic schema’s – sucking and grasping. New information is either assimilated (incorporated into an existing schema – if consistent with existing knowledge) or accommodated (put into a new schema/an existing schema is altered – if inconsistent with existing knowledge)
What are the problems caused by schemas?
Prejudice and stereotypes can develop which then affect interpretation of new information. Can prevent learning of new information if we ignore information that we cannot fit into an already existing schema.
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Aims to use brain imaging to map behaviour to brain function in an effort to identify where and how particular mental processes take place.
Which elements of psychopathology have we explained with the cognitive approach?
Depression, Schizophrenia
What are the strengths of the cognitive approach?
Application to Cognitive Behaviour therapy, Has experimental evidence
What are the weaknesses of the cognitive approach?
Machine reductionism, Reliance on inferences
Outline the biological approach in psychology.
Human behaviour results from biological factors such as hormones, genetics, evolution and the nervous system.
What are the research methods used by the biological approach?
Brain scanning, Animal studies, Twin and adoption studies
Define genotype within the biological approach.
The genetic makeup of a person (their alleles)
Define phenotype within the biological approach.
The resulting characteristics are a product of the genotype interacting with the environment.
What do most biological psychologists believe is the role of genetics in psychopathology?
Genes can make you vulnerable to developing mental illness or addiction (diathesis-stress model), often as a result of altering neurochemistry
How do biological psychologists describe the role of genes?
Genes code for behaviours in the same way that they code for physical characteristics, genetics can cause mental illness as well as explain traits like gender, intelligence, personality etc.
What is the role of evolution for a biological psychologist?
Certain behaviours are very common because they are ‘left over’ from processes that previously gave us a survival advantage in our early evolutionary environment e.g. certain phobias, preference for fatty/sugary food, and as a result have been passed down through the generations.
How do twin studies provide evidence for the biological approach to explaining behaviour?
Higher concordance rates in MZ than DZ twins suggests increased similarity must be a result of the increase in shared genetics (100% for MZ, 50% for DZ) given that it is assumed pairs of twins are raised in the same environments.
What is a concordance rate (used by the biological approach in twin/family studies)?
A measure of similarity – the rate of probability that two people will show the same characteristic/behaviour.
What is the major problem for the biological approach caused by results of twin studies?
We never get 100% concordance suggesting that genes alone can never explain a particular illness/behaviour.
As well as using twin studies what other concordance rates can psychologists examine?
Adopted children with the biological and adoptive parents, Different levels of relation e.g. parents, aunts, uncles etc.
If a characteristic or a disorder has a higher % occurrence within a family than in the general population (even if the figures are low) what does this suggest to biological psychologists?
That there is likely to be a genetic element to the disorder.
Why do biological psychologists need to be careful about relying on findings from twin studies/rates of disorder in families?
It is never really possible to fully separate nature and nurture (best option is adoption studies)
What are the strengths of the biological approach?
Good experimental evidence à scientific credibility, Biological causes allow for development of biological treatments
What are the weaknesses of the biological approach?
Ignores environmental factors e.g. family/social situation, Deterministic (removing responsibility)
Who developed the psychodynamic approach?
Freud
What are the assumptions of the psychodynamic approach?
Behaviour is caused by unconscious forces driven largely by basic biological motivations present from birth (the Id and it’s resulting libido energy), Early childhood experience is particular important in the development of personality and later mental health problems
List the 3 levels of consciousness identified in the psychodynamic approach. Label them on an iceberg.
Conscious, Preconscious, Unconscious
Outline Freud’s description of the conscious mind.
What we are aware of at any given time
Outline Freud’s description of the preconscious mind.
Memories that we can recall when required
Outline Freud’s description of the unconscious.
Made up of memories, desires and fears that cause anxiety/distress so have been repressed, but they still influence behaviour.
How did Freud attempt to identify concepts buried in the unconscious mind of his patients?
Free word associations, identifying ‘Freudian slips’ (parapraxis), discussing dreams
According to Freud, what are the three parts of the personality?
Id, Ego, Superego
What is the Id in the psychodynamic approach?
The basic, animal instinct part of the personality. Generates the libido (energy resulting from innate, aggressive and sexual instincts).
What principle does the Id operate on according to Freud?
Operates on the pleasure principle
According to Freud, when does the Id develop?
Present from birth
Where is the Id within the 3 levels of consciousness?
Unconscious
What is the Ego in the psychodynamic approach?
The rational part of the mind that acts as a mediator to balance the demands of the other parts of the personality.
What principle does the Ego operate on according to Freud?
Reality principle
According to Freud, when does the Ego develop?
Around 1-2 years old (in the anal phase of development)
Where is the Ego within the 3 levels of consciousness?
In both the conscious and unconscious mind
What is the Superego in the psychodynamic approach?
Takes moral considerations, responsible for feelings such as guilt. Includes ideas about appropriate behaviour adopted from the same sex parent.
What principle does the Superego operate on according to Freud?
Morality principle
According to Freud, when does the Superego develop?
Around 4-5 years old (at the end of the phallic stage and resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex)
Where is the Superego within the 3 levels of consciousness?
Largely unconscious but some conscious (e.g. when making moral decisions/feeling guilt)
Freud outlined defence mechanisms used by the Ego to cope with the demands of the conflict caused by the Id/superego or traumatic events. Which three do you need to know?
Repression, Denial, Displacement
Outline the defence mechanism of repression proposed by Freud.
The ego prevents distressing thoughts from entering the conscious mind
Outline the defence mechanism of denial proposed by Freud.
A threatening event or unwanted reality is ignored/blocked from conscious awareness
Outline the defence mechanism of displacement proposed by Freud.
A negative impulse is directed onto something else
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development outlined by Freud?
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latent, Gential
At what age does each stage of psychosexual development take place?
Oral – 0-1 year, Anal – 1-2 years, Phallic – 3-5 years, Latent – 6 years until puberty, Genital – puberty onwards
Where is the focus of libido at each psychosexual stage of development?
Oral – mouth and sucking behaviours, Anal – anal/bladder control, Phallic – genital differences, Latent – repression of sexual urges, Genital – awakening of sexual urges directed toward intercourse
Outline the Oedipus complex as explained by Freud, that has to be resolved during the phallic stage of psychosexual development.
Boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother and resent their father. Develop castration anxiety as a result. Identify with father to resolve this conflict, taking on his superego and gender identity.
What is fixation according to Freud?
Fixation is a failure to resolve the necessary conflict at any psychosexual stage of development, and will result in characteristic behaviours/problems in the adult.
What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
Highly influential for the first half of 19th Century, first approach to look for psychological rather than physical causes of disorders, Applications to successful therapies like psychoanalysis, Emphasis on childhood linking to later development has formed the basis for other important theories. Acknowledges nature and nurture
What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?
Based on idiographic evidence – issues of generalisation, Subjective nature of evidence, Unfalsifiable, Emphasis on the past rather than the present (ignores other factors that may be important)
What are the assumptions of the humanistic approach?
It is inappropriate to use a scientific approach to study human behaviour as it is reductionist. Need for a holistic view of the whole person. People are inherently good and are innately driven to try to reach their full potential. People have free will. Behaviour is a result of subjective feelings and thoughts of self, and as a result should be studied as individuals (idiographic)
Who are the key psychological figures in the Humanistic approach?
Maslow and Rogers
What are the 5 levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs starting from the bottom of the pyramid?
Physiological needs (basic), Safety needs (basic), Love and belongingness (psychological), Esteem (psychological), Self-actualisation
What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explain about behaviour?
What is motivating an individual’s current behaviour
How does Maslow explain his hierarchy?
People use their motivation to climb the hierarchy, spending our whole lives trying to reach the top. You can only move up the hierarchy once all needs at the previous levels have been met.
Explain ‘Self-actualisation’ as outlined by Maslow.
Occurs when all needs are fulfilled, consists of a strong sense of self awareness, full acceptance of self and others, ability to deal with uncertainty, strong sense of creativity.
What are the strengths and weaknesses of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?
+ Face validity, - culture biased, - assumes all have the ability to self-actualise, possibly not actually generalizable, - based on an unrepresentative sample, - limited explanatory power
What were the key humanistic concepts generated by Rogers?
Self-actualisation depends on a person’s thoughts about themselves. Differences (incongruence) between the self-concept (how we see ourselves) and ideal-self (how we wish to be/to be seen) can cause problems such as anxiety and depression. Self-concept is thought to be determined by whether a person receives unconditional positive regard or conditions of worth from others.
Define the self- concept as explained by Rogers.
How we see ourselves
Define the ideal-self as explained by Rogers.
How we will to be/to be seen
What is incongruence in the humanistic approach?
When the self-concept and the ideal self are mismatched
What was the name of the therapy developed by Rogers based on the humanistic approach?
Client centred therapy
What does CCT (based on the humanistic approach) aim to do?
Reduce incongruence (to alleviate anxiety and depression but is useful for anyone!)
How does CCT (based on the humanistic approach) work?
Client is in charge of the discussions, and they have to solve their own problems. The therapist is there to help make the client aware of their thoughts, actions and behaviours by rephrasing sentences and repeating them back, always showing unconditional positive regard throughout the process.
What are the strengths of the humanistic approach?
Positive approach, Supports idea of free will (good for mental health), Idiographic à in depth understanding (Not reductionist), Therapy (CCT) is successful and applied in a huge number of different settings
What are the limitations of the humanistic approach?
Lacks objectivity, Cannot generalise, Limited explanatory power
