Islam in Europe

Question 1

What does Hijrah translate to?

Answer 1

Migration (for religious freedom)

Question 2

What journey does the Hijrah refer to?

Answer 2

This journey from Mecca to Yathrib (Medina) that Muhammad and his followers took when his message was rejected by the Meccans, who forced them to flee.

Question 3

What was the first thing Muhammad did in Yathrib?

Answer 3

Build a mosque

Question 4

What was instituted in Yathrib?

Answer 4

Muhammad instituted prayer five times a day but at that time there was no way of knowing when prayer begun. The Adhan (call to prayer) was instituted during this time.

Question 5

What does Medina mean?

Answer 5

City of the prophet

Question 6

What other religions were in Medina?

Answer 6

The city was made up of Jewish and Arab tribes when Muhammad and his followers arrived there. There were some Christians living there too. The fourth group were the “hypocrites” - those that professed Islam outwardly but did not follow it sincerely.

Question 7

How did Muhammad treat other religions in Medina?

Answer 7

A Charter or constitution was made which acknowledged Muhammad as their sovereign. Muslim and Jews had the same rights, each group would follow its own faith. No group could meddle with the affairs of another group and both would not shed blood in the city.

Question 8

How did locals in Yathrib treat emigrants?

Answer 8

Emigrants from Mecca were known as Muhajitreen and those that had always lived in Yathrib were known as Ansar (supporters). Muhammad tried to encourage the Ansar to pair up and support the Meccans who had fled Mecca, who were poor and needed jobs, having left everything they owned back in Mecca. The Ansar gave them enormous support, housing, food etc but only Muhammad and Ali ever thanked them verbally. The other Meccans took their help for granted and later ignored them when it suited them to be like this.

Question 9

What distinction did the law school jurists make between believers and unbeliever?

Answer 9

• The unbelievers/ non believers/ polytheists were to have no social interaction with the People of the Book.
• Non believers had to be fought until they converted and had to enter treaties that protected the rights of Muslims or they were to be enslaved or killed.
• On the other hand the people of the book including Christians, Jews and later Zoroastrians and even Buddhists had a faith founded on revelation and had to be granted protection.

Question 10

Where are Muslims persecuted?

Answer 10

In the world today Muslims have fled China, Burma, where they have been persecuted. Many flee to non Muslim countries.

Question 11

How should Muslims treat other faiths?

Answer 11

• accept their traditions just as Muhammad kept the Arabian tribal and clan traditions
• show respect to other faiths unless they persecuted them

Question 12

What does the Dhimmi contract suggest?

Answer 12

The law schools were keen to make the contract for the dhimmis which offered them the ability to discreetly practice their religion and have protection in other areas of law with Hanafi being most liberal. This would suggest that Muslims today do treat other religions respectfully in Muslim states.

Question 13

How many out of 1.5 billion Muslims live in the non Muslim world?

Answer 13

350 million

Question 14

Why is the Ummah an important concept for Muslims?

Answer 14

Muhammad - “my ummah will not agree upon an error”

Question 15

What is Ummah consciousness?

Answer 15

The Muslim states are under an obligation to act with patience and faith and compassion to protect minority Muslims in adversity. They must have “Ummah consciounsness”. Muslims worldwide have to act to preserve the faith worldwide e.g establishing centres for learning in non Muslim countries and acts of charity such as Muslim Aid worldwide

Question 16

What does Qur’an 2:143 say that binds the ummah together?

Answer 16

“And thus we have willed you to be a community of the middle way so that you may be a witness to the truth before all mankind”

Question 17

What did Muhammad say that implies muslims in non muslims lands are not part of the ummah?

Answer 17

“Believers and Muslims of Quraysh and Yathrib and those who follow and meet them and strive with them constitute one single community to the exclusion of all others in mankind”

Question 18

What are Muslim minorities encouraged to do?

Answer 18

1. Migrate to a Muslim majority land if living under a non Muslim majority is difficult
   OR
2. Respond to threats and aggressiveness with jihad-lesser type. This is from the Qur’an.

Question 19

What in the Qur’an suggests the ummah should protect each other?

Answer 19

“And the believers, both men and women are the protectors of one another”

Question 20

Why should muslims work to preserve the faith worldwide and how?

Answer 20

• Faith and action are important and work together in Islam. Faith cannot be taken for granted and so the Ummah have to work together to preserve the faith worldwide.
• In non Muslim countries Muslims have set up centres for learning and research (Exeter University’s Arabic Centre) and organized community groups to serve Islam and Muslims worldwide e.g helping Muslim Aid

Question 21

What is dawa?

Answer 21

• mission; an invitation or call to share
• It therefore means to convey the message of Islam to people. It can also mean to portray islam in a good light. It is not a required obligation of Muslims to convert others to Islam.
• Must be practiced with wisdom

Question 22

What does the Qur’an say on dawa?

Answer 22

“We have not sent you as a watcher over them; on you is only to deliver (the message)”

Question 23

How did Muhammad practise dawa?

Answer 23

• Firstly, he preached to individuals in secret because the Meccan elite were hostile to the message of Islam. Then he preached publicly. This was met with a very hostile reaction for the Meccan elite again, the Quraish tribe.
• Muhammad sent groups of his Companions to the surrounding tribes in Yathrib to preach the message of Islam. Again this was viewed as a threat to the Meccans. This resulted in battles between Muhammad and his people and the Meccans and ended with a peace treaty known as Al-Hudaybiya-this recognised the power of the Muslim community.
• After this Muslims travelled among the tribes and spread the message and the tribes came to visit the Prophet and hear the message

Question 24

Did Muhammad respect other religions when practising dawa?

Answer 24

Yes - No one was forced to convert. Churches and synagogues were protected just as mosques were and Christians of Egypt were not forced to become Muslims.

Question 25

Why is jihad important?

Answer 25

The first type of Jihad is to encourage everyone to enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong. Muslims should try to build peaceful and trusting relationships through dialogue with non -Muslims rather than turn to the second combative Jihad. They need to engage with them through their type of thinking. Enjoining right and forbidding wrong through the tongue is extremely important for Muslims.

Question 26

What laws are Muslims expected to follow in non muslim countries?

Answer 26

In some countries where Muslims are a minority such as Great Britain there is a civil law which Muslims are expected to keep e.g if they commit a crime they are tried and may suffer the penalty of imprisonment or fines etc.

Question 26

When and how did Sharia councils emerge in GB?

Answer 26

In the 1980’s Shari’a councils emerged in Great Britain and were an extension to the work carried out by the mosques.

Question 27

What was the function of sharia councils in GB?

Answer 27

1. They try to reconcile matrimonial disputes /help sort out the breakdown of a marriage
2. Issue religious divorce certificates
3. They produce reports and offer expert opinions to the civil courts.

Question 28

What did Rowan WIlliams say on sharia?

Answer 28

He made the suggestion that some aspects of Islamic legal practise (especially aspects of family law) should be accommodated alongside English civil law.

Question 29

How does muslim marriage work in the UK? (GILLEAT)

Answer 29

It is unclear with regard to marriage and divorce how far Muslim marriages have to be registered and dissolved using Britain’s main stream legal system. Ideally, Muslims like other minority groups must “marry twice, divorce twice, and do many other things twice “ in order to fulfil the requirements of both legal systems e.g marry in the mosque under a Muslim marriage contract under Islamic law as well as marry in a registry office and sign the British legal documents. In practice however this does not happen. Many Muslim marriages in the UK are not registered by civil law.

Question 30

How has the work of Sharia councils impacted women? (GILLEAT)

Answer 30

Studies have shown that for women the work of the Shari’a councils regarding marriage, divorce and family life have been messy and fragmented as well as complex. This is because the Shari’a courts have very traditional views of women’s roles in Islam.

Question 31

What did Samio Bano say on sharia councils?

Answer 31

The Shari’a councils are made up of imams and the counsel that women receive from these is unsatisfactory. Women seek advice on marriage, children, education, divorce etc but the imams are not trained in counselling skills and care and are unable to relate Islamic law to the problems that the women face when living in Britain in this century. However, women now sit on the shari’a councils and are more inclined to see the perspectives of Muslim women regarding divorce.

Question 32

What are problems faced by muslims regarding identity and culture when living in non muslim countries?

Answer 32

· whether to deal with banks (involves interest - banned under sharia)
· whether to work in restaurants or supermarkets that sell wine or serve pork;
· whether to apply for citizenship from the ‘non-Muslim’ country of residence
· whether to participate in a ‘secular political system’ by joining a political party, support certain (non-Muslim) candidates, or run for elections
· whether to greet non-Muslims, congratulate them on their festivals, or attend their weddings or funerals
· whether to accept a marriage or divorce ceremony or court ruling from a non-Muslim judge or based on the ‘non-Muslim law’

Question 33

What happened in 1860-1945?

Answer 33

Muslim settlement in Europe. Transition from sail to steam vessels mean that there was tiring work in the shipping industry. This form of labour was rejected by white European labourers. New recruits for this work came from the Yemen and Somalia. Muslims tended to work in the engine rooms for very little money and because of their poor wages and living conditions they often jumped ship and began a new life for themselves in Britain.

Question 34

How were muslims initially seen in GB?

Answer 34

In Britain they were seen as outsiders much like peddlars and beggars.

Question 34

What did a magazine in 1872 say the spread of islam was?

Answer 34

one of “ the greatest curses to mankind.”

Question 35

Case study - Tyneside and South Shields

Answer 35

Arab Muslims began to settle in South Shields in early 1900’s. By the First world war there were 8 Arab boarding houses and between 300 and 600 sea farers staying in the North East. Lawless, the scholar has built up a picture of their daily life - they struggled economically and tried to build up mosques, burial facilities etc. They observed fasting periods and prayers. Most boarding houses had a communal room used for prayer and different seamen carried out the role of the imam. Eid was celebrated and by 1928 permission was given for halal slaughter to be carried out form the South Shields Corporation. In 1936 Shayk Ali al-Hakimi arrived and this transformed and changed the private practises that took place in the boarding houses into the public domain.

Question 36

What did Shayk Ali al-hakimi do?

Answer 36

He was a Sufi and established religious centres in South Shields, Cardiff, Hull and Liverpool. He transformed the religious life of these communities and festivals were celebrated in public and following his arrival newspapers had pictures of these festivals. He began to regard himself as head of the Muslim Community of the UK.

Question 37

Gilleat - what were pull factors for muslims to come to Britain from Pakistan, Bangladesh and India?

Answer 37

· The development of manufacturing industries and economic boom after 1945 meant that places such as Oldham drew Muslims in for work with electrical engineering and the wool industry.
· A race relations Committee report stated that Pakistani Muslims were sending between 50-60 million pounds back to their home countries to support their families.
· Religion was irrelevant and only served a purpose in that it brought communities of Muslims together.
· Over the years less money was sent home and more money was put into the communities here such as providing for mosques, schools and other facilities. This helped to encourage religious and cultural traditions to be kept in future generations so that this sense of identity was not lost in Great Britain.
· Skilled professionals from Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan came over in the 70/80’s due to civil war and repressive regimes in their own countries, to the intellectual society of Britain.

Question 38

Gilleat - what were the push factors that made muslims leave pakistan etc to come to Britain?

Answer 38

· The creation of an independent Islamic state known as Pakistan meant there were millions of refugees flooding into Pakistan from India and this put a strain on the resources of Pakistan.
· The Pakistani Government built a dam at Mangla in the 1960’s which forced entire communities to migrate. They were given compensation to migrate and came to Britain.
· Turkish Cypriots came over to Britain in the 1950’s. Civil unrest was one cause but also the Turkish labour market could not provide enough opportunities for young Cypriots.

Question 39

How have British muslims developed british news media?

Answer 39

They want to learn about national (British) and international affairs from a distinctive Islamic perspective.
- Q News - a magazine written by British Muslims, people who sit in Parliament and people that make policies. In this way they try to form a European identity - working with non-Muslims on British issues and international news but also keeping their own identity as Muslims - looking at the news from an Islamic perspective.
- The Muslim News - a popular newspaper in which British Muslims can articulate their opinions and views.

Question 40

How have British muslims expressed their identity within entertainment/media?

Answer 40

British Muslim comedians have to reflect the interests of their audiences regarding Islam.
British born Muslim Comedians have talked more now about every day affairs rather than religion and ethnicity so that they can relate more to British audiences e.g Shazia Mirza
Nadia - Bakeoff - a british muslim who won Bakeoff and is now a popular cooking show host

Question 41

Why might Muslims struggle to identify with cricket?

Answer 41

Regarding cricket many younger British Muslims support the India/Pakistani teams. This is partly because cricket is associated with village greens, drinking ale and church spires - being very English. This isn’t something they find it easy to identify with. They also support the India/Pakistan teams because of the history of colonialism.

Question 42

How have muslims integrated into british politics?

Answer 42

There are various ways that Muslims have been involved in politics in the UK according to Hussain from the Islamic Foundation in Leicester. This includes setting up Muslim parties, lobbying, local action, joining existing parties etc. They often see politics as a way of getting their problems solved such as housing, immigration, education and social welfare.
- Sajid Javid - tory Muslim politician
- Sadiq Khan - was a lawyer, but became an MP, then Lord Mayor of London

Question 43

How have muslims integrated into trade and commerce in Britain?

Answer 43

British Muslims have increasingly become consumers and producers of Halal products - not just food but cosmetics and pharmaceuticals are emerging as Halal in Britain. For example, Kelloggs cornflakes is now certified as a Halal food in Britain and there is an emerging market for Islamic banking and the non charging of interest. British Muslims have set up restaurants and the corner shops now sell ethnic foods alongside mainstream products.

Question 44

Who is Mustafa Ceric?

Answer 44

He is a Bosnian Imam and was born in 1952. He has led interfaith work world wide. He was a 2008 recipient of Eugen Biser Foundation award for his efforts in promoting understanding and peace between Islamic and Christian thought.

Question 45

What was Ceric’s purpose?

Answer 45

1. To call on Europeans not to make the mistake of generalizing all Muslims and not to spread Islamophobia which he felt was happening in Europe and the West generally especially after 9/11
2. To tell Muslims who live in Europe to take seriously three events that may have consequences for their stay and status in Europe.
3. To ask the Muslim world to help Muslims in the West, especially in Europe, to come up with an acceptable dialogue between Muslims in the West and their European neighbors.

Question 46

What challenges do Musims face living in Europe according to Ceric?

Answer 46

One problem Muslims face is the spread of Islamaphobia in the West by the media and politicians, so they need to encourage interfaith dialogue and live by the social contract, to respect the Government and to encourage religious interfaith dialogue (In the West Islam as a faith is not as respected as it should be after the terrorist attacks). The challenge is to ensure they are also protected from racist comments by the Government etc

Question 47

What does Ceric believe Muslims in the west must do?

Answer 47

Muslims must earn their rights in the West by being responsible. The youth need to find a new European Islam and break down stereotypes. Muslims must try to marry the ideals of the East and the West.

Question 48

What do Muslims need to do to live in a global world according to Ceric?

Answer 48

It is because of the stigma of global terrorism from which Muslims are suffering that a Declaration of the European Muslim must be worked out. They must change their bad global image into a good global image in matters of faith. The centre of Islam needs to lead in providing global guidance on global issues and dialogue with neighbours. Muslims need to prove to the world that Islam is a sincere faith and a righteous religion. It includes the rational man of the West and the wise man of the East.

Question 49

What did Goody say on modernisation?

Answer 49

Many Muslims feel that modernisation imposed on Islamic cultures e.g holiday places where western youth drink alcohol, dance, gamble and have fun. This gives deep offence to Muslims and emphasises a great gap between them and us. This led to the Bali bombings in 2002. There is a “solidarity” in Islam which is not present in other religions according to Goody.

Question 50

What did Goody say on terrorism?

Answer 50

When people describe opponents as terrorists they make no effort to consider their political or religious agenda. They are seen as the enemy who resort to violence for the sake of violence. They do usually have an ideological agenda though. For example, Islamic movements such as al-Qaeda aim to reduce the influence of the USA in the Holy Land (Israel/ Palestine) by forcing them to remove their military forces from the region and permit the creation of a Palestinian state. They would like to create states ruled by Islamic law throughout the region.

Question 51

Why does Goody say the Israel conflict has an effect on European Muslims?

Answer 51

European Muslims empathise with the Palestinians and conditions their attitudes making them more willing to carry out and approve of acts of violence, There is a “solidarity” in Islam which is not present in other religions according to Goody. Ummah is very important in Islam - Ummah consciousness- all Muslims must support one another

Question 52

Who was Osama Bin Laden?

Answer 52

He was a very wealthy Saudi business man who provided training grounds and finances to assist the rebel fighters during the Soviet-Afghan war. It was from his work that the al-Qaeda terrorist organisation grew and eventually became obsessed with carrying out attacks on America. Eventually Osama bin Laden did not like the American presence of troops in Saudi during the Persian war and planned attacks against them, encouraging Muslims to expel the US from Saudi Arabia. In 1996 he issued a declaration of Jihad against the US. He was funded by the Americans inadvertently because Saudi Arabia backed him and America supported Saudi Arabia.

Question 53

How did Bush explain the aftermath of 9/11?

Answer 53

Hecame up with an explanation of the causes that gave a clear divide between “us” and “them” mentality. He was influenced by Lewis who employed the circular argument of “Muslim terrorists hate us because they are full of rage.” He was not willing to look at the part that the US had played in the policies of the Middle East that led to 9/11. Instead he claimed it was a clash of civilisations which led to stereotyping of all Muslims as “bad.”

Question 54

What does Green say on Bush’s response to 911?

Answer 54

Green points out that he is not for one minute suggesting that al-Qaeda were not to blame for 9/11 and he does not condone in any way their tactics. But the Americans should have taken more seriously their own policies in the Middle East that contributed to 9/11. Instead they took very little responsibility for their own part.

Question 55

What were the two phases of the war on terror?

Answer 55

1. The war on the Taliban.
2. War on Iraq to remove Saddam Hussein from power.

Question 56

Did the US receive support for their war on terror?

Answer 56

The US received a lot of support e.g from the UN Security Council for phase 1 but little support for phase 2. Therefore they had to resort to an anti-Islam campaign to justify their actions.

Question 57

What were the three parts to the US anti-Islam campaign?

Answer 57

1. To defend the US against Muslim terrorism (Islam is violent)
2. To introduce democracy in Muslim countries (Islam is antidemocratic)
3. To liberate Muslim women (Islam is misogynist)

Question 58

Why did the US believe Islam is a violent religion?

Answer 58

• It was suggested in a speech post-9/11 that Islam is a religion of violence
• Bush used phrases such as crusade and radicalism, fascism, extremism all prefaced with the word Islamic - reinforcing the connection between Islam and violence and that this was a war against Islam.

Question 59

Why is it problematic to assume Islam is violent?

Answer 59

• Every religion has a history of violence and it is wrong to assume that this is a problem in Islam alone. For example, Christianity alone was responsible for the Crusades.
• The west assumes that the Muslim terrorists are not politically motivated more than religiously motivated, but this is often not the case.
• There is the assumption that Muslims are silent or indifferent about terrorist attacks. In fact there are many Muslims who have denounced attacks such as 9/11 e.g the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia. A fatwa was pronounced condemning Osama Bin Laden by prominent Muslim scholars. The problem is the west does not seem to know of these condemnations.

Question 60

Why did the US believe islam is anti democratic?

Answer 60

The Bush administration claimed war with Iraq on the grounds of Saddam Hussein having links with Al-Qaeda and possessing weapons of mass destruction. One month before the invasion Bush changed his ideas as there was no evidence for either. Therefore he claimed that it was necessary to introduce democracy to Iraq by 2006. The Bush administration were trying to get across the message that Islam as a whole was opposed to democracy and freedom .

Question 61

What are the problems of thinking of Islam as anti democratic?

Answer 61

• Green points out that even in America they have struggled with the notion of democracy such as implementing the equal right to vote for all American citizens.
• There has been democracy in some Muslim countries in fits and starts - e.g in 2012 Mohammad Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood became the first democratically elected president of Egypt, and countries such as Bangladesh, Turkey, Indonesia have all seen democracy to different degrees in their history.
• Gallop has released figures showing that Muslim populations have a strong desire for democracy.
• In 2009 Muslim people were not certain at all that America was serious about trying to establish democracy for the Middle East. In fact they see America as part of the problem of trying to establish democracy in the Middle East. In Iran America had supported the Shah who had an oppressive rule with little democracy. In Egypt the Egyptian President Mubarak had received support for US despite his authoritarian rule. At the start of the Arab Spring Obama supported Mubarak still and only removed his backing once he realised that Mubarak was losing power.
• In conclusion then according to Green, Western politicians who claim that Islam is the real obstacle to democracy are driven by Islamophobia or ulterior political motives rather than a genuine desire to see democracy restored to these regions.

Question 62

Why does the US believe Islam is misogynistic?

Answer 62

Bush said “America is beginning to realise that the dreams of the terrorists and the Taliban were a waking nightmare for Afghan women and their children…In Afghanistan …we reject their brutality toward women and children….It is wrong. Their attitude is wrong for any culture….their attitude is wrong for any religion.” A war in self- defence became a war of liberation. This became the underlying rhetoric for going to war in Iraq…to liberate women at the hands of violent Muslim men. Green points out that there are many Muslim countries which do not adhere to human rights and it’s not good to turn a blind eye to this.

Question 63

Why is it problematic to say Islam is misogynistic?

Answer 63

• Patriarchy and oppression of women are not just prevalent in Islam but also in the Christian tradition. Key theologians have taught that the woman is a temptress and that the role of women is to be mothers. These teachings made their way into western culture and women have often been the target for violence. The Catholic church and the Southern Baptist Convention do not allow women priests/ministers.
• Furthermore, Practices in Islam such as FGM often predate Islam and are practices in a small minority of Muslim countries. This is also practiced in Christian communities in Egypt and the Sudan. It is a practice never mentioned in the Qur’an. Polygamy predates Islam and although is in the Qur’an is not as widely practices as Westerners assume. Tunisia and Turkey have banned it and in other countries it is practiced by the upper and middle classes. Green therefore points out that there is not one correct model for marriage in Islam.
• There are also women who are not passive victims as the Bush administration suggested. Sisters in Islam in Malaysia campaign against polygamy and present alternative interpretations of Islam that help women’s rights. Amina Wadud and Barlas are also Islamic feminists who support female rights in Islam. Women have served as heads of state such as Benazir Butto in Pakistan

Question 64

What did Abu-Lughod say on women in Islam?

Answer 64

He claims that if the Bush administration were so concerned about the treatment of women in Afghanistan they should have gone to war earlier than 9/11. The American Government have continually supported Muslim countries which have poor treatment of women. Therefore it is most likely a pretext for going to war in order to gain military and economic advantage

Question 65

What key events have happened in Britain recently?

Answer 65

• Around the time Isis went into Syria and Iraq and took British prisoners hostage executing them the British Government set up the group PREVENT. This was to eradicate radicalisation and extremism in GB. Many Muslims felt very targeted by this as a community in GB. However, it did call out some radical imams who were preaching Extremist ideas such as the imam at Finsbury Mosque in London.
• In 2018 David Arnass the MP was murdered by a Somalian Muslim.
• The Manchester Bomb attacks 2015 carried out by Libyan Muslims.

Question 66

Why did David Jones claim that in the last few years the Muslim community has made a lot of headway at integrating with the non Muslim community?

Answer 66

• The Deobandi Muslim school (originally from India) are an educational establishment who have set up seminaries for young adult, mainly male Muslims in GB. They are a conservative Islamist group. They did have a curriculum which is very conservatively Islamic but in the last few years some have made links with secular universities and are encouraging their students to take courses in sciences etc. This means they are trying to integrate more.
• The Government have set up initiatives and funded Muslim organisations to work on poverty in Muslim areas, extremism and to train women to lead prayer in mosques. Muslims have criticised them for doing this to eradicate terrorism rather than seeing Muslims people as ends in themselves.

Question 67

What is the case of Shamina Begum?

Answer 67

Her application to renew her British citizenship has been refused again and she is living in a camp in Syria, even though many countries such as Spain having given back citizenship to Isis brides. The documentary on her pointed out that she came from a very poor area of London and that social media played a part in her leaving for Syria showing an ideal land that Isis represented governed under Shari’a law. She denies seeing anything like this on social media. Some think she should be granted citizenship as she was so young when she left and others think she should pay the price for what she did.

Question 68

What % of British Muslims feel a strong sense of belonging to Britain?

Answer 68

86%

Question 69

What % of British Muslims feel they are able to practise their religion freely?

Answer 69

94%