Iran, Mexico, Britain, Russia, Nigeria Flashcards
What was the problem with the 2007 election in Nigeria
The election was fraudulent and thus rocked Nigeria’s legitamacy
Nigeria’s tendency is to solve problems using these two methods:
Military force and authoritarian rulers
constitutionalism
the acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles - this has eluded Nigeria.
Olusegun Obasanjo
A military general who became president through fraudulent elections of 2003 & 2007. Lead a presidential democracy. Ran as the People’s Democratic Party candidate. Christian and Yoruba from the south.
Umaru Yar’Adua
Current president of Nigera. Elected in 2007. No military background. Part of the People’s Democratic Party, muslim and election was fraudulent.
These two Nigerian military rulers are notorious for thier corruption. Why does their behavior contradict with “rule of law” introduced by the British
Babangida and Abacha. Although the rule of law suggests that even political figures should follow laws, Babangida and Abacha form their own authority disregarding existing law.
This is why most Nigerians are skeptical of their government
corruption
What has been the shinning light in the constant brigade of military rulers
Democratic movements
What is an important form of legitamacy in Northern Nigeria? The acceptance of this source of legitamacy shows what about Nigeria’s attempt to remain as a nation.
Sharia law is the source of legitamacy. The acceptance of this law in all of Nigeria, including the North shows that Nigeria is trying to accomodate for religious groups
what is the effect of this statement: “the trouble with Nigeria is simply and squarely a failure of leadership?” by Achebe a novelist
It shows that citizens have no trust in their governing officials. Therefore, it is difficult to build legitamacy.
How were the state and national leaders elected in 2007?
rigging, intimidation, fraud, and violence.
Difference between precolonial North and South Nigeria
North estblished Sokoto Caliphate with central government based on religious faith. The South lived communally and never centralized
trade connections in precolonial Nigeria
a reason for Nigeria’s prosperity - the Niger River an access to the ocean allowed contact and trade with other civilizations.
early influence of Islam in precolonial Nigeria
these principles, including the rule of religious law, governed politics, emphasizing authority and policy making by the elite. Subserviance of women
kinship-based politics was the tradition during which period in Nigeria? Which part of Nigeria leaned more towards kinship based politics
precolonial. South had kinship based politics, the north had centralized states
democratic impulses occured when in Nigeria
Nigerian still value democracy because the tradition goes back a long way.
precolonial era in Nigeria
centralized states developed early in the geographic area that is now Nigeria. Especially the Northern regions due to the need for a the coordination of the irrigation of crops
colonial era in Nigeria
this era came when Great Britain both introduced the rule of law and influences that worked against democratic patterns. These influences include authoritarian rule, interventionist state, individualism, chirstianity, intensification of ethnic politics
Nigeria first became under authoritarian rule when
Great Britain ruled indirectly by leaving chiefs and other natives in charge of governments designed to support British economic interests.
When did Nigeria become an Interventionist state? How did this change the relationship between rulers and citizens in Nigeria?
the colonists trained the chiefs to operate their governments in order to reach economic goals. Since unlike the free market and individuals right that checked the power of the British government, the interventionist state set in place the expectation that citizens should passively accept the actions of their rulers
Individualism was brought about by in Nigeria
capitalism and western political thought released a tendency for chiefs to think about the personal benefits of governance, rather than the good of the whole community.
Christianity is an effect of blank in Nigeria
The British brought their religion with them, and it spread throughout the south and west, the areas where their influence was the strongest. Since Islam was already well entrenched in the north, the introduction of Christianity create a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas.
Intensification of ethnic politics in Nigeria
During the colonial era, ethnic identities both broadened and intensified into three groups: the Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. British pitted ethnic groups against each other. Also nationalist leaders used ethnic identity as a method of advocating independence from Britain
The era since independence in Nigeria is categorized by
Parliamentary-style government being replaced by a presidential system, intensification of ethnic conflict, military rule, personalized rule/corruption, federalism, and economic dependence on oil
Why was the parliamentary system replaced in Nigeria? What was formed, was this new form odd in any ways?
The ethnic divisions made it difficult to identify a mjority party or to allow a PM. Formed presidential system, but the legislature and judiciary consistently can not check the power of the President
Why did ethnic conflict intensify after Nigerian indepence
After Nigeria gained independence, the Hausa-Fulani dominated parliamentary government due to their large population. The Hausa-Fulani wanted to keep their majority, so they formed a coalition with Igbo. in the South East. This caused Yoruba and consequently the other big three tribes to use military force, until the Igbo established military rule.
Military rule during the Indepedence era of Nigeria
Military rulers have some legitamacy to rule , since the military is a source of stability.
personalized rule/corruption in post colonial Nigeria is due to
During colonial rule, native leaders lost touch with the old communal traditions that encouraged them to govern in the interests of the people
Why did Nigeria try to implement a federalist system of government?
In order to ease ethnic tensions, however this federalist system has not worked out, because under military regimes the “federalist system” has really just been unitary since military presidents did not allow sub-governments to function with any sovereignty. All power remained in Abuja.
What impact has Nigerian oil had on the rulers of Nigeria
Nigeria’s good fortune has been a liability; its rich oil reserves tempt the military leaders and this oil money has only enriched the elite. Nigeria’s entire economy depends solely on the oil market
Problem with dependence on oil by Nigeria
Nigeria’s economic survival is based almost exclusively on oil - when international oil markets fall, so does Nigeria’s economy.
Political culture of Nigeria and characteristics that have shaped this political culture
characterized by ethnic diversity, corruption, and a politically active military.
Characteristics that have shaped the culture:
- Prebendalism - The patron (Nigerian president or other highly ranking political figure) will give portions of oil revenue to clients in the clientelism system. Obviously these clients will be of the same ethnicity and religion as the patron.
- Civil Society - Military dictatorships have failed to supress civil society. These groups have influenced the government through clientalism and cooperatism, however they do form the basis for a viable democracy.
- Conflict between Tradition and Modernity - Britain both encouraged Nigeria to be a strong, modern country, but it also restricted Nigeria’s ability to do reach this goal, because Britain kept their conoly in a subserviant economic position. Since Nigeria is plagued with ethnic-based military conflicts and personalized, corrupt leadership practices, Nigeria has been pushing towards returning to pre-colonial roots that emphasize communal accountability. However, values established in the pre-colonial era conflict with those established in the colonial era.
- Religious Conflict - An example of conflict is due to the Muslim North’s push towards Sharia law.
- Geographic influences ( different regions of Nigeria) - Nigeira is divided into 6 geographic zones
- Northwest - dominated by Hausa-Fulani (Muslim)
- North East - Kanuri (Muslim)
- Middle Belt - Both Christians and Muslims
- Southwest - Yoruba (40% Muslim, 40% Christian, 20% Indigionous)
- Southest - Igbo (Roman Catholic)
- Southern Zone - minority groups
Political culture of Nigeria characteristic: Prebendalism, How does prebendalism mean for citizens in terms of politics?
Prebendalism - The patron (Nigerian president or other highly ranking political figure) will give portions of oil revenue to clients in the clientelism system. Obviously these clients will be of the same ethnicity and religion as the patron. Prebendalism is the main form of political participation even among villagers who recieve favors from local rulers in exchange for the political support for the local ruler’s boss.
Political culture of Nigeria characteristic: Rich Civil society
Civil Society - Military dictatorships have failed to supress civil society. These groups have influenced the government through clientalism and cooperatism, however they do form the basis for a viable democracy. Civil society has had centripetal and centrifugal influences.
Political culture of Nigeria characteristic: Tension between modernity and tradition
Conflict between Tradition and Modernity - Britain both encouraged Nigeria to be a strong, modern country, but it also restricted Nigeria’s ability to do reach this goal, because Britain kept their conoly in a subserviant economic position. Since Nigeria is plagued with ethnic-based military conflicts and personalized, corrupt leadership practices, Nigeria has been pushing towards returning to pre-colonial roots that emphasize communal accountability. However, values established in the pre-colonial era conflict with those established in the colonial era.
Political culture of Nigeria characteristic: Religious conflict
Religious Conflict - An example of conflict is due to the Muslim North’s push towards Sharia law.
Name 1 example of contradiction that Britain brought to Nigeria.
Democracy vs. Subjugation (gaining control over country)
Political culture of Nigeria characteristic: Geographic influences
Geographic influences ( different regions of Nigeria) - Nigeira is divided into 6 geographic zones
Northwest - dominated by Hausa-Fulani (Muslim)
North East - Kanuri (Muslim)
Middle Belt - Both Christians and Muslims
Southwest - Yoruba (40% Muslim, 40% Christian, 20% Indigionous)
Southest - Igbo (Roman Catholic)
Southern Zone - minority groups
Northwest
dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people, the area is predominately Muslim.
Northeast
This area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kanuri, which are also primarily Muslim.
Middle belt
This area contains many smaller ethnic groups, and it is also characterized by a mix of both Muslims and Christians.
Southwest
The large ethnic group called Yoruba dominate this area. The Yoruba are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and about 20% devoted to native religions.
Southeast
This area is inhabited by the Igbo, who are primarily Roman Catholic, but with a growing number of Protestant Christians.
The Southern Zone
This area includes the delta of the huge Niger River, and its people belong to various minority groups.
How many ethnically-based groups live within Nigeria’s borders.
~ 250
What is Cultural diffusion? What did it primarily spread in Nigeria?
Contact with and spread of customs and beliefs of other people. Cultural diffusion spread Islam.
Indirect rule
The British imposed this on Nigerians; they trained natives, primarily from the south, to fill the European-style bureaucracy
What did British education symbolize in Nigeria? British education’s impact on social cleavages and the tension between the North and South Nigeria?
This sowed the seeds for decolonization because the British trained Nigerians to rule their own country, teaching the natives about freedom, justice, and equality of opportunity. The British cycle started the vicious cycle where elites recieved educationm, and then became wealthy enough for their children to afford education. Therefore the British education caused a rift in wealth. Also the British education was primarily available in the Chirstian South, so the South saw the North as backward since they were not schooled.
Ethnic identities
The modern era has seen ____ _____ become the major basis for conflict in Nigeria.
Societal Characteristics of Nigeria that make Nigerian democratization difficult
- Poverty - 60% of all Nigerians live under the poverty line
- Large Gap between Rich & Poor - Like Mexico, the distribution of Nigerian wealth is very unequal (0.44 Gini Index). Nigerian economy shows no sign of improvement, so the wealth disperity is not improving.
- Health Issues - HIV/AIDS is a hige concern that has cost the Nigerian economy a lot. AIDs is seen as a second priority by the Nigerian government and is often left to NGOs.
- Literacy - Literacy rate is low (68%)
Free press and interest groups under military rule nigeria?
Military rule has generally allowed free press and interest groups
Poverty Nigeria
A societal characteristic of Nigeria that makes democratization a challenge. Many people do not have the means to survive. 60% of Nigerians live under the poverty line.
Large gap between the rich and the poor Nigeria
A societal characteristic of Nigeria that makes democratization a challenge. The distribution of income in Nigeria is very unequal similarly to Mexico. However, unlike Mexico, Nigeria’s economy shows no sign of improvement, therefore this unequal wealth distribution (0.44 GINI index) is not changing
Health issues Nigeria
A societal characteristic of Nigeria that makes democratization a challenge. Nigeria has high rates of HIV/AIDS. Government places HIVs as second priority, HIVs is primarily dealt with by NGOs
Literacy Nigeria
A societal characteristic of Nigeria that makes democratization a challenge. There is a gap between the male literacy rate and the female rate of almost 15%. Low average literacy rate 68%
Name one of the major events that has occured due to cleavages in Nigeria? Which other big 6 country has had a similar even occur due to cleavages?
Nigeria experienced the Biafran Civil War. Russia has on going conflict with Chechnya which caused the Chechnyan Civil War
Ethnic tensions in Nigeria
exacerbated by religious differences among Muslims, Christians, and followers of native religions.
Important social cleavages
Ethnicity: 250 - 400 different ethnic groups with an array of different customs, languages, and religon
Religion: Christians received special treatment and Muslims resented this.
region - Differences in region causes hyperfederalism
urban/rural differences - Political organizations and interest groups primarily exist in cities as well as newspapers and media sources.
social class - Elites gain wealth through pocketing state resources
Urban/rural differences in Nigeria
Political organizations and interest groups primarily exist in cities as well as newspapers and media sources.
Nigerian women’s educational opportunities are often cut short by these two events.
Mariage and Children
Ken Saro-Wiva
There were protests over Ken Saro-Wiva’s death because he was executed because he was a rights activist and environmentalists. Founded the Movement for the Survival of the Orogni People to apply national laws to secuire financial benefits for the Ogoni in the Niger delta and to hold foregin-operated oil companies to environmental standards.
Cleavage Social Class
The division between elites and ordinary people runs deep in Nigeria. Elites are educated and control state resources
MOSOP
Founded by dissident Ken Saro-Wiwa in the 19990s. There were protests over Ken Saro-Wiva’s death because he was executed because he was a rights activist and environmentalists. Founded the Movement for the Survival of the Orogni People to apply national laws to secuire financial benefits for the Ogoni in the Niger delta and to hold foregin-operated oil companies to environmental standards.
Problems with election in Nigeria
Many elections have been canceled or postponed by the military and others have been fraudulent. Although there has been higher voter turnout
Coup from Heaven
The term used to desribe Abacha’s death. The term shows how disliked Abacha was.
Skeptical in Nigeria
Nigerians feel this emotion about the prospect of democracy because they do not believe that elections are conducted in a fair and honest way.
Transparency International
a private organization that compiles statistics about corruption in countries around the world. Nigeria ranks low on the list.
Corruption effect on Nigerian politics?
This is a major problem in all six countries except for the United Kingdom. Corruption is part of the political culture, and bribes and favoritism are a part of the way the government operates. Nigeria’s pre-bendalism permeats the political system to such a degree that political participation cannot yet take place outside its influences. The Economical and Financial Crimes Commission a government organization set up to fight corruption (EFCC) was lead by Ribadu who had gained a reputation for bravely charging and presecuting corrupt govenors. He was forced to resign under the orders of Yar’Adua
How are Protests in Nigeria handled?
Foreign oil producers in the Niger Delta are targeted. iJaw women occupied drilling sites in the Niger Delta until ChevronTexaco’s officials agreed to provide jobs for their sons. Many foreign oil based companies have left Nigeria blaming Nigeria’s government as incapable of controling protests.
Gender equality
Nigeria has serious issues with this: the House of Representatives has only 6.4% women and 3.7% women in the Senate. Obasanjo did make it part of his campaign to include more women in bereaucratic positions.
How are Linkage institutions in Nigeria
These are both newly developed and highly fluid because Nigeria’ efforts to democratize are so far incomplete. However it is difficult to estsblish a coherent party system, because too many political parties (based offo of region of ethnicity) exist
People’s Democratic Party (PDP)
One of the better-established parties. This party is the party of Olusegun Obasanjo, who was elected in 2004. In 2007 (amidst widespread fraud), Umaru Yar’Adua won from this party. Won elections in the Muslim and Christian parts of the country. Deliberately ran Obasabjo even though he is Christian in order to garner support form all of Nigeria
7All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)
Former General Muhammadu Buhari, a Muslim from the North, was this party’s candidate in 2004 and 2007..
Action Congress. (AC)
This political party ran Vice President Atiku Abubakar as its presidential candidate in the 2007 election. The action congress demonstrates a trend of major parties coalescing, since the Action congress formed when the Alliance for Democracy, the Justice Party, and the Advance Congress of Democrats merged
Nigeiran attempt to establish coherent multiparty system
A party has to earn atleast 5% of the votes in 2/3 of the states, this practice cuts down the number of running parties.
Citizens of Nigeria vote for candidates on three levels:
Local, state, and national
How has Nigeria attemped to unite its people through politicS?
If a president does not recieve an outright majority, a second ballot election takes place. A president must win atleast 25% of votes in 2/3 of all states, therefore preventing purely regional candidates from winning. As a result coalitions are formed
What is the Nigerian voting system?
Plurality
Sharia
A large number of Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the sharia court system.
Corporatism’s purpose in nigeria
Military unions were politically active during the colonial and postcolonial era. Babangida establsihed corporatism in order to limit the influence of unions. A central laor organization supplanted older unions, and only candidates approved by Babangida could be elected as labor leaders. The labor unions provide a great basis for democracy, since they will be influencing the politicy making process
Nigeria’s Labor Congress
The labor unions regained much of their previous power when this congress called and successfully orchestrated a general strike of workers in cities across Nigeria.
Business Interest gorups in Nigeria
Businesses have genrally shared in the corruption and collaborated with militar regimes. Business has also been a significant force in promoting economic reform.
The main source of information for most Nigerians. Describe Mass media in Nigeria
Radio. Nigeria has an independent press.
Federal
In theory, Nigeria is this kind of political system, with government organizations on local, state, and national levels since the 2,3,4th Republics. However neither federalism or check and balances operate. all local and state are dependent on central government
No
Do federalism or checks and balances currently operate successfully?
Patrimonialism
the president is head of an intricate patron-client system and dispenses government jobs and resources as rewards to supporters. The president views state as personal property.
Bureaucracy in Nigeria
The British put an elaborate civil service in place, which has expanded. Bribery is common and jobs in this are awarded through prebendalism. This system has led to a rapid increase in the number of these jobs. Believe beuacracy is bloated and inefficient
Para-statals
Many Nigerian government agencies are these, or corporations owned by the state and designated to provide commercial and social welfare services. Other control major industries such as steel, defense products.
State-corporatism
para-statals provide this input to the government, but because they are controlled by the government, they create this:
The National Assembly
A parliamentary system was in place until 1979, when it was replaced by a presidential system with a bicameral legislature, kjnown as this:
4 years
Representatives and senators serve renewable terms for this length of time:
The Senate
A very diverse group - the upper house of the Nigerian bicameral legislature. Directly elected by popular vote.
The House of Representatives
Elected by plurality and represent many different ethnicities.
Judicial review
During the early years of independence the Nigerian judiciary had a great deal of autonomy. However, judicial review exists in theory, but it is stronger and more independent than in the past.
Military in government
A term that describes the politically active part of the military.
Military in barracks
Fulfills traditional duties of the military, and its leaders have often been critical of military control of political power.
Loyalty pyramid
Senior government officials are supported by a broader base of loyal junior officials, creating this:
Recipe for corruption
State control of resources means that those in they pyramid get the spoils and they alone have access to wealth and infuence.
Revenue sharing
allowing the entire country to benefit from offshore oil profits. However almost no one believed that the profits would benefit anyone except corrupt government officials.
Rentier state
Iran and Nigeria have this in common:
Rentier state
heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives rent form other countries.
Rents
Earnings that come from other states purchasing oil.
Rent-seeking behavior
Individuals, groups, and communities have learned to respond to the state’s control of rents through this, primarily by competing for the government’s largesse.
Informal economy
Most Nigerians struggle along without much access to rents, and participate in this, unreported incomes from small-scale trade and subsistence agriculture.
Over-reliance on oil
This means that the county’s economy suffers disproportionately whenever oil prices go down.
Federal character
a principle that recognizes people ahead of all elections, religions, and regions, and takes their needs into account.
Large national debt
Amassed during the 2008 economic crisis, this remains a major problem for Nigeria, especially as oil prices have plummeted.
Negative effects of federalism
Bloats and promotes corruption within the bureaucracy.
National question
Do Nigerians have enough in common to remain together as a country?
Signs of democracy
Some checks and balances between government branches, some independent decisions in the courts, revival of civil society, independent media, a peaceful succession of power, improving Freedom House scores.
A peaceful succession of power
For the first time in Nigeria’s history, power passed between two civilians as President Olusegun Obasanjo stepped down in 2007, peacefully allowing Umaru Yar’Adua to take over.
alternative voting
allowed voters to rank candidates on the ballot in order of preference
backbenchers
Legislators who do not hold leadership positions within their party caucus or conference.
Beveridge Report
provided for a social insurance program that made all citizens eligible for health, unemployment, pension, and other benefits.
Blair, Tony
promised to create a “new labour” party and rule in a “third way”
British Broadcasting Corporation
Developed in the Collective Consensus era, this was the TV and Radio Network in England, It was meant to be more educational and was generally kind to government officials.
British National Party
Extreme right party in Britain that formed in 1982. It is against immigration into the UK.
Brown, Gordon
replaced Tony Blair
Cameron, David
new Prime Minister
caucuses
meeting of people from the same area or of like mind
“civic culture”
Culture characterized by trust, legitimacy, and limited involvement, which some theorists believe is most conducive to democracy.
Clause 4
part of the early Labour Party’s ideals, believed in nationalizing some parts of the British industry. This clause was removed in the early 90’s and showed the moderation of this party to the center
Clegg, Nick
Leader of the Liberal Democrats since 2007. His party is underrepresented in Parliament compared to the number of votes they received
coalition government
When two or more parties join together to form a majority in a national legislature. This form of government is quite common in the multiparty systems of Europe.
collective consensus
both the Labour and the Conservative parties supported the development of a modern welfare system
collective responsibility
in a parliamentary system, the concept that all cabinet members agree on policy decisions and that all will be responsible for the results
Confederation of Business Industries
limits the Trade Union Congress’ wage demands in exchange for 3% reduction in income tax rates
Conservative Party
a political party in Great Britain which developed from the Tories in the 1830s, One of the two major parties in the UK, it is generally more right wing, and more towards free-markets and the upper classes,advocates a mixed economy and encourages property owning
“Constitution of the Crown”
the “constitution” of Britain that evolved over time composed of: 1. important documents 2. common law3. tradition/customs
cultural heterogenity
vast cultural differences and varieties in ethnicites, races, and tribes inhabiting the same nation or country
Democratic Unionist Party
led by protestant clergymen, The Protestant Party in Northern Ireland that is for keeping Northern Ireland in the UK
devolution
the delegation of authority (especially from a central to a regional government)
the English Bill of Rights
This document list rights retained by Parliament, not by individual citizens. William and Mary signed this document in 1688, giving important policymaking power to Parliament, including the power of the purse.
Euroskeptics
strict conservatives who want to roll back government controls and move to a full free market
“first-past-the-post” voting system
The “first past the post” voting system is the election process for representatives in the House of Commons; it means winner take all. Therefore, the candidate who receives the most votes is elected and there is no need for a majority nor an element of proportional representation.
the Glorious Revolution
The English Parliament drove out an absolute monarch and replaced him with two constitutional monarch’s William and Mary
gradualism
a policy which involves taking slow, measured actions
hereditary peers
members of the House of Lords appointed by the monarch and whose title automatically passes down to their sons.
home rule
The government of a colony, dependent country, or region by its own citizens.
hung parliament
a parliament in which no single party has majority control in the House of Commons
insularity
the state of being isolated or detached
Irish Republican Army
an unofficial nationalist military force seeking independence for Ireland from Great Britain
“Iron Lady”
Margaret Thatcher’s supporters believed her to be capable and firm
Keynesianism
the economic theories of John Maynard Keynes who advocated government monetary and fiscal programs intended to stimulate business activity and increase employment
Labour Party
created in 1906 to represent the rights of the newly-enfranchised working man
law lords
five members of the House of Lords who serve as Britain’s highest court of appeals
Liberal Democratic Alliance
party that garnered 26% of popular vote in the 1980s but, because of GB’s plurality system, never got more than 62 seats in the House of Commons.
liberalism
A political or social philosophy advocating the freedom of the individual, parliamentary systems of government, nonviolent modification of political, social, or economic institutions to assure unrestricted development in all spheres of human endeavor, and governmental guarantees of individual rights and civil liberties.
life peers
distinguished members of the society who are given lifetime appointments to the house of lords
limited government
In this type of government everyone, including all authority figures, must obey laws. Constitutions, statements of rights, or other laws define the limits of those in power so they cannot take advantage of the elected, appointed, or inherited positions.
“loyal opposition”
the party that does not win the majority
Magna Carta
In 1215 King John signed this document, agreeing to consult nobles before he made important political decisions, especially those regarding taxes. This forms the basis of limited government that placed restrictions on the power of monarchs.
Miliband, Ed
Took over the labour party after gordon brown resigned. under his rule the labour party continued to lose support. Miliband has political preferences left of center.
“misery index”
the measure of unemployment and inflation every month
mixed economy
the government directing the economy and nationalizing major industries without giving up basic principles of capitalism such as private ownership of property.
multi-nationalism
Areas that had once been many nations that are now united under one government
neo-corporatism
interest groups take lead and sometimes dominate the state
noblesse oblige
the duty of upper classes to take responsibility for the welfare of the lower classes
OPEC
Organization for Petroleum Exporting Countries
Oxbridge
Oxford and Cambridge Universities
parliamentary system
the prime minister and cabinet ministers are actually members of the legislature
Plaid Cymru
Political Party in Wales
plurality voting system
electoral process in which the candidate who polls more votes than any other candidate is elected.
politics of protest
tendency to disagree openly and sometimes violently with the government
proportional representation
an election system in which each party running receives the proportion of legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote.
quangos
quasi-autonomous nongovernmental organizations or policy advisory boards appointed by the government
Question Time
a period during a parliamentary session when members of Parliament may ask questions of the ministers
rational-legal legitimacy
Legitimacy based on a system of laws and procedures that are highly institutionalized.
referendum
The name given to the political process in which the general public votes on an issue of public concern.
safe districts
districts in which incumbents win by margins of 55% or more
Scottish National Party
political party in Scotland
“shadow cabinet”
sits on opposition side facing the cabinet members
Sinn Fein
the political arm of the IRA
solidarity
complete unity in a group or organization
Speaker of the House
the leader of the majority party who serves as the presiding officer+
Thatcherism
a conservative, capitalist backlash led by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher
the third way
a centrist alternative to the old labour party on the left and the conservative party on the right
Tories
support the King
Trade Union Congress
represents a coalition of unions that had a great deal of clout because the government often consulted them on important decisions
traditional leadership
family inheritance- queens, kings, etc.
UK Independence Party
slightly more popular than the British National Party, this party is opposed to British membership in the EU.
unitary government
political authority centralized (London)
“vote of no confidence”
where a majority of parliamentary members vote to remove a prime minister from office
welfare state
a government that undertakes responsibility for the welfare of its citizens through programs in public health and public housing and pensions and unemployment compensation etc.
Whigs
opposing the King
If a country’s percentage of labor force in the industrial sector decreases and the percentage in the tertiary services sector increases, the values that shape the political culture are probably moving toward
post-modernism
Advanced democracies are most likely to vary in terms of their promotion of
plurality electoral systems
Which of the following is the best description of Britain’s constitution?
Britain’s constitution is based on documents, common law, and customs.
By gradually extending political rights, including voting, Britain discouraged the development within its borders of
confederalism
Which of the following provides the best evidence that devolution is occuring within the British political system?
the revival of the Scottish parliament
The largest non-European immigrant group in Britain today is composed of
Indians
The influx of eastern Europeans into Britain after 2004 was stimulated primarily by
the admission of several eastern European countries into the EU
British voters in which of the following areas would be least likely to vote for a Labour MP?
rural England
Which of the following is NOT a linkage institution in Britain?
the Supreme Court
The alternate vote called to referendum by the Liberal Democrats in 2011 proposed changes that would put more emphasis on
Proportional Representation
The coalition government that formed after the election of 2010 drew its leadership from the
Conservatives and Liberal Democrats
Which of the following are most influenced by the value of noblesse oblige?
the traditional wing of the Conservative Party
Which of the following political parties won 23% of the popular vote in the election of 2010 but only wom 57/650 seats in the House of Commons?
Liberal Democrat Party
In Britain, quangos influence policymaking in their role as
interest groups based on neo-corporatismNeocorporatism- Interest groups dominate the state (GB)State Corporatism- State decides interest groups (China, Russia)
The policymaking power of Britain’s Supreme Court is limited mainly by
the principle of parliamentary sovereignty
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the British political system?
separation of powers between the branches of government
Which of the following best describes the geographical location of policymaking power in Britain?
Britain has a unitary state but is now developing some power to sub-governments
“Collective responsibility” best describes the policymaking process of the British
cabinet
A coalition cabinet is unusual in British politics because it
includes leaders of more than one political party
Which of the following is the most significant check on the power of the British cabinet?
shadow cabinet
Which of the following is NOT a power of MPS in the House of Commons?
override decisions made by the cabinet
What is unusual about the configuration of the House of Commons after the 2010 elections as illustrated in the chart above?
Liberal Democrats sit on the majority side of the chamber
By tradition, if the majority party loses a vote of confidence, what must happen next?
The government resigns and elections for new MPs are held
The main objective of the Labour government’s reorganization of the House of Lords between 1999 and 2010 was to
create a mostly-elected chamber
Which of the dollowing is most likely to be an expert in a particular public policy area?
a member of the House of Lords
Which of the following would be most likely to wasnt to dismantle the National Health Service?
a Thatcherite
Which of the following does the exposure in 2009 of the parliamentary scandal reveal about the British political system?
Transparency levels are still high
The international event that most seriously challenged the popularity of the Blair government was
the Iraqi war
Which of the following reflects Britain’s insularity in its dealings with the European Union?
Britain has not adopted the euro as a common currency.
The creation of the office of mayor and a general assembly for London and the Scottish and Welsh assemblies are all a part of a trend in the British political system toward
devolution
Essay Question: Devolution - How has it affected the UK?
- current issue, won’t go away- the dispersing of power to lower gov’t- ex. N. Ireland and Scottland- Good Friday Agreement- Home Rule - Ireland’s right to govern itself
Essay Question: Why is GB stable?
- Legitimacy- Gradualism - change is occuring- Tradition - Traditional Legitimacy- Oldest Democracy- Model of Political Stability
Essay Question: Role of the Social Class
- Nobless Oblige- Oxbridge- Social Clevages (Poor North, Rich South)- House of Lords vs. House of Commons
Essay Question: Who governs the UK? Where is the authority? What power do they use?
- PM = a lot of power- House of Commons - Rubber Stamp- Cabinet - Masterminds behind legislation- Quango - Influence/Carry Out Policy
Essay Question: Parliamentary Sovereignty
Enhances House of Commons- HoL - Limited Power, Delay Legislation- HoC - Pass, Debate, Carry On Legislation- No judicial review = defer to gov’t = parliamentary review
Amerindians
original peoples of North and South America; indigenous people; found largely outside of Mexico City, in the South
Felipe Calderon
Mexico’s president from 2006-2012, member of the PAN party
Camarillas
patron-client networks extending from the political elites to vote-mobilizing organizations throughout the country. peasants received jobs, assistance etc, all in exchange for votes.
Chamber of Deputies
The lower house of Mexico’s legislature; has 500 members; 300 are from single-member districts, 200 are by proportional representation. Deputies have 3 year terms.
Co-optation
the process by which interest groups in Mexico are brought into a beneficial relationship with the state, making them dependent on the state for certain rewards
Cuauhtemoc Cardenas
Founder of the Democratic Revolution Party (PRD), son of Mexico’s famed leader Lazaro Cardenas. Ejected from the PRI for demanding reform that emphasized social justice and populism and then switched parties to PRD.
Lazaro Cardenas
‘Roosevelt of Mexico’; stabilised and revolutionised Mexican politics: redistributed land, nationalized industry, invested in public work.
Caudillos
Political/Military strongmen that control different areas of the country. each leader has supporters who he granted favors to based on loyalty. formed a camarilla.
Chiapas Rebellion
Rural inhabitants of Mexico (Zapatistas), upset about the poor quality of land for farming, lack of other jobs, illiteracy rates, and the overall poverty, rebelled in Chiapas. They asked for jobs, land, education, and health facilities, things that most of Mexico’s indigenous and the poverty-stricken rural farmers are in need of. Group still hasn’t formally called off rebellion despite Vincente Fox’s efforts to incorporate into political system.
State Corporatism
Where the state chooses which interest groups are given influence on the politics of the government. Often results in govt meddling to ensure no one group successfully challenges the govt. Central rule allowing input from interest groups.
Neo Corporatism
interest groups take lead and sometimes dominate certain areas of the government.
Cristeros Rebellion
Priests around the country led a rebellion in the 1920s against new laws against the rights of churches and priests. One of the bloodiest conflicts in Mexican history.
Dependency
Mexico has always been in the shadow of a bigger nation (e.g. USA, Spain) and consequently struggles with economic dependency on stronger nations.
Porfirio Diaz
Dictator in Mexico from 1876 to 1911. Overthrown by the Mexican Revolution of 1910. One of Benito Juarez’s generals - promised to only serve one term and broke that promise.
Ejidos
Collective land grants that were given to peasants after Cardenas’ land redistribution.
Election Reform (In Mexico)
-campaign finance restrictions- laws that limit contributions to campaigns-critical media coverage, as media is less under PRI control-international watch teams, as Mexico has tried to convince other countries that elections are fair and competitive-election monitoring by opposition party members
EZLN
Zapatista National Liberation Front; began in 1994 in the southern state of Chiapas in protest to the signing of the NAFTA agreement; they saw the agreement as a continuation of exploitation by voracious landowners and corrupt PRI bosses; their army captured 4 towns
Father Hidalgo
Mexican priest who established independence movement among American Indians and mestizos in 1810; despite early victories, was captured and executed
Federal Election Commission (CFE)
Independent regulatory body to safeguard honest and accurate election results. Reformed campaign finance restrictions, critical media coverage, election monitoring.
Vicente Fox
Became president of Mexico in 2000 and ended the PRI’s reign; Pushed to end official corruption, reduce poverty, and spur economic growth; Tried to protect the rights of Mexico’s natives;
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
UN Treaty that attempts to promote free trade among country (led to creation of WTO). Mexico joined this in 1986.
GNP per Capita
Gross National Product/Population
HDI
Human Development Index, measure of quality of life using factors like life expectancy, literacy, access to clean water, income, etc. (The higher the number, the more developed)
IFE (Instituto Federal Electoral)
created as independent regulatory body to safeguard election results. dominated by PRI in early years, but now appears to be operating right. reforms include:- campaign finance restrictions- critical media coverage- international watch teams- election monitoring by opposition party members
Import Substitution Industrialization
Development strategy that uses tariffs and other barriers to imports, and therefore stimulates domestic industries. Followed by Cardenas.
Benito Juarez
Mexican national hero; brought liberal reforms to Mexico, including separation of church and state, land distribution to the poor, and an educational system for all of Mexico. Elected in 1861. Popular with ordinary people and also had support among elites.
Mestizos
A person of mixed Native American and European ancestory. Forms 60% of the Mexican Population.
“Mexican Miracle”
a period from the 1940s to the 1970s wherein rapid industrialization promoted high levels of economic growth and improved living standards, which gave rise to a new middle class with rising expectations. “model” for other nations. illusion died in ‘80’s when economy crashed, politics were chaotic, and ethnic clashes started.
NAFTA (North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement)
A trade agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico that encourages free trade between these North American countries. Mexico hopes to stimulate growth, enrich big business community, and supply jobs for Mexicans in new industries. Risk - being overshadowed by US. Recent clashes over Mexican trucks.
Neoliberalism
A strategy for economic development that calls for free markets, balanced budgets, privatization, free trade, and minimal government intervention in the economy. idea solidified in the 1980’s after pendulum theory dominated 1970’s.
Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador
Mexican politician who was the mayor of Mexico City from 2000 to 2005, before resigning to contend the 2006 presidential election representing the PRD (Party of the Democratic Revolution)
Para-statal
state owned corporations created to undertake a broad range of activities such as transportation facilities and public utilities. ex. PEMEX
Patron-Client System
Relations in which “Patron” gains support of “Client” through mutual exchange of benefits and obligations. keeps control in govt’s hands; they decide who gets favors and who doesn’t.
PEMEX
Mexican Petroleum; a government agency that runs the oil industry in Mexico - effort by Cardenas
Pendulum Theory
Back & forth effect between socialist reform and free-market economic development, Swings in politics between left and right.
Plurality (first-past-the-post)
Winner does not need a majority to win, but simply must get more votes than anyone else.
Proportional Representation Electoral Systems
An election system in which each party running receives the proportion of legislative seats corresponding to its proportion of the vote.
PAN National Action Party
Founded in 1939, created to represent business interests opposed to centralization and anti-clericism. Strongest in the North.Platform:-Regional autonomy-Less government intervention in the economy-Clean and fair elections.-Good rapport with Catholic Church-Support for Private and religious educationE.g. Felipe Calderon.
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
A statistical tool that estimates the buying power of income across different countries by using prices in the United States as a benchmark
PRD Democratic Revolutionary Party
PRI’s left opposition, party leaders are divided on issues, and party is not well organized. Currently led by Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador, mayor of Mexico City.
PRI Partido Revolucionario Institucional
Party that was in power from 1920 to 2000; founded as coalition of elites that trade favors and pass power around. constitution written during that era created democratic, three-branch govt. stabilized power in hands of leaders. Characterized by:-Patron-Client System: gets support from rural areas, emphasises favour trading.-Corporatist Structure: Party has ultimate authority but interest groups are brought under party umbrella. ALlows input from party-selected groups.
Santa Anna
Mexican dictator who was in charge when war broke out between the Mexicans and Americans. He lost Texas to rebels, and was the leader of the armed forces during the war.
Sexenio
the six-year term that a Mexican president serves in office; PRI concept
Technicos
educated, business-oriented leaders; moderate, free-market approach to politics. took control of the PRI in the 1970’s
Pancho Villa
Mexican revolutionary leader (1877-1923) one caudillo (other is Emiliano Zapata) that lead peasant army and helped establish rebellion in 1910’s. Did many good things, but killed a lot of people. Wanted to take money from the rich and give it to the poor.
World Trade Organisation
An organisation made up of member countries which aims to create a global free trade environment. It deals with eliminating trade barriers (tariffs, quotas), ensuring dumping of goods does not take place, reducing/eliminating subsidies on domestic production, focussing on standards for labour laws and ensuring intellectual property issues are dealt with in a fair manner. Mexico has expanded diversity of exports beyond oil and developed new trade relationships with countries other than US.
politicos
division in the PRI - old style people who headed camarillas. opposed to tecnicos.
porfiriato
influences of Porfirio Diaz: stability in the form of a stable govt, authoritarianism, foreign investment and growth (because of cientificos), and growing gap between rich and poor
Emiliano Zapata
one caudillo (other is Pancho Villa) that lead peasant army and helped establish rebellion in 1910’s
Zapatistas
Guerilla movement named in honor of Emiliano Zapata; originated in 1994 in Mexico’s southern state of Chiapas; government responded with a combination of repression and negotiation
Ernesto Zedilla
1994-2000 tried to strengthen courts by emphasizing rule of law. ex. refused to interfere with courts’ judgements.
BRIC Countries
Brazil, Russia, India, China - new attention seekers, while Mexico draws attention for drug-fueled violence
Revolution of 1910-1911
important source of legitimacy - revolutions are accepted as a path to change
historical tradition: authoritarianism
strong tradition of authoritarian rule. ex. president holds incredible amount of political power
historical tradition: populism
supports the rights and powers of the common people in their struggle with the privileged elite -> revolutions have often wanted more rights for normal mexicans. ex. modern day zapista movement
historical tradition: divisions within the elite
common to have competitive splits among the elite… current party leaders often at odds
historical tradition: instability and legitimacy issues
history full of chaos. many serious contenders to govt authority. ex. 1994 presidential candidate assassinated
political culture: religion
until ‘20’s, church actively participated in politics and priests often led populist movements. religious beliefs still have heavy impact on individual political decisions.
political culture: patron-clientelism
system of cliques based on personal connections and charisma. network of camarillas is huge, corruption is one by-product. may be on the decline.
corruption
by-product of patron-clientelism
political culture: economic dependency
almost always been under the shadow of a more powerful country; recently struggled to gain more economic independency
geographical influences
mountains and deserts, varied climates, natural resources (oil, silver etc), long border with the US, 114 million people, rapidly urbanizing population
cientificos
group of advisors brought in by Porfirio Diaz that believed in bringing scientific and econ progress to Mexico
Constitution of 1917
set up structure for democratic govt, three branches, competitive elections but didn’t do much to curb political violence. also wanted to limit foreigner’s rights to exploit natural resources.
major cleavages
urban v rural, social class, mestizo v amerindian, north v south
crosscutting cleavages
different divisions emerging as issues change
coinciding cleavages
when every dispute aligns the same groups against each other
Tlatelolco Plaza
site where student protests led to govt troops killing 200 people –> example of co-optation: next president recruited student activists to be part of govt
measures of democracy
political accountability, political competition, political freedom, political equality
Vincente Fox
PAN candidate for 2000
senate
The upper house of Mexico’s legislature; has 128 members; combo of electoral methods
supreme court
highest federal court, judicial review on paper, in reality never overrules impt govt action of policy
Reliance on Sharia law
An important cultural characteristic that separates Iran from most of its near neighbors is its:
Mexico was officially colonized and Iran was not, but Iran was greatly impacted by Western moves
What is an accurate comparison of the colonial experience of Mexico and Iran?
Secularism
The Qajar rule shaped the political culture of Iran by laying the foundations for:
Reliance on income from oil
Under the Pahlavis, Iran was transformed into a rentier state because of its:
Sharia law as the sole legal code
The Iranian Constitution of 1906 did NOT provide for:
creation of the Majles, direct elections, a constitutional monarchy, the Guardian Council
The Iranian Constitution provided for:
keep Soviet power contained by reinstalling the shah
The United States was motivated to co-sponsor the overthrow of Mosaddeq in the 1950s by its desire to:
expanding it to give the clergy authority over the entire Shia community
The Ayatollah Khomeini changed the meaning of jurist’s guardianship by:
were led by charismatic leaders
Iran’s Revolution of 1979 was similar to China’s Revolution of 1949 in that they both:
the steep drop in oil prices accompanied by a rise in consumer prices
According to the “revolution of rising expectations,” a factor that created the “intolerable gap” that sparked the Iranian Revolution of 1979 was:
Sunni Muslim
The second largest religious group in Iran today is
State-provided welfare benefits to the poor
Radical clerics differ from pragmatic conservative clerics in their support of:
when Muhammed Khatami was president
Civil society in Iran expanded most noticeably during the time:
accusations that the presidential election was fraudulent
The demonstrations and protests during the early summer of 2009 were sparked by
university enrollments
In recent years women in Iran have had the most success in overcoming discrimination in terms of:
The Khordad Front
Which of the following is an alliance of reformist political parties
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
Who is a modern-day political figures is most clearly a conservative who is influenced by radical clerics:
Assembly of Religious Experts and the Majles
Who is elected to office by direct popular vote in Iran?
Political parties currently in exile
The National Front, the Liberation Movement, and the Mojahedin are all:
more restrictions imposed by the government
Compared to newspapers in Mexico, newspapers in Iran have:
the President
Who is NOT appointed by Iran’s supreme leader?
Assembly of Religious Experts
Who has the right to dismiss Iran’s supreme leader?
refereeing disputes between the Guardian Council and the Majles
The Expediency Council was first created by the Ayatollah Khomeini for the purpose of:
Devising the budget
What is a political power held by both the Iranian president and the British prime minister?
Removing the president
What is NOT a power of the Majles?
Sharia
Ultimate legal authority in Iran rests in
Tudeh
A loosely-organized military group that has often been responsible for controlling demonstrations and protests in recent years:
Reformists
Which policymaking faction is most likely to support the government taking an active role in controlling the economy?
Iran’s population is disproportionately young
An important result of the government’s population policy that it has held since the late 1980s is that:
the oil industry
The United States and Iran disagree most openly over Iran’s policies for:
theocracy
a government ruled strictly by religion is called a:
secularization
the belief that religion and the government should be separated.
possession of oil
Iran, Russia, China, Mexico, Nigeria (similarity)
developing economy
Mexico and Iran (similarity)
Zorostrianism
A state-sponsored religion.
Shiism
The brand of Islam that distinguishes Iran from its neighbors.
Pahlavi shahs
authoritarian leaders who ruled in the 20th century. Attempted to secularize the state.
Ayatollah Khomeini
personified the union of political and religious interests from ancient days. A very charismatic leader who undid the Pahlavi attempts to secularize the state.
Revolution of 1979
Led by the Ayatollah Khomeini, it transformed the legitimacy of the state, anchoring it once again in principles of Shiism.
Constitution of 1979
written during the last months of the Ayatollah Khomenei’s life, it legitimizes the state of Iran.
Constitution of 1979
a highly complex mixture of theocracy and democracy.
Crisis of legitimacy
Sovereignty of the people and divinely inspired clerical rule have created this crisis of legitimacy in Iran.
Authoritarianism, but not totalitarianism
The central political leaders did not control all areas of people’s lives.
Union of political and religious authority
Political and religious leaders were often one and the same. However, starting with the rule of the Qajars (1794-1925), the two types of authority were separated, only to be brought back together by the Revolution of 1979.
Shiism and sharia as central components
Almost 90% of Iranians identify themselves as Shiite, a fact that links citizens to the government (which is officially a theocracy.)
Sharia law
An important source of legitimacy that the modern government particularly emphasizes.
Escape from European colonization
Iran was never officially colonized during the imperialist era. However, it was heavily impacted by European power moves.
Geographic limitations
A great deal of Iran’s land space is unusable for agriculture. Because of this, the population of Iran is unevenly distributed.
The influence of ancient Persia
The Persian identity shapes Iranian nationalism.
Strong sense of Iranian nationalism
Public opinion surveys show that Iranians in general have a stronger sense of national identity than do citizens of most Arab countries.
The Safavids
converted nearly 90% of their subjects to shiism. Their ability to rule was affected by economic problems and their inability to establish absolute power. This first era ended when Afghan tribesman invaded. Based legitimacy on their descent from the Twelve Imams.
The Qajars
Widened the separation between government and religion. Led the country into serious debt.
Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1909
Began with business owners and bankers demonstrating against the Qajars. Demanded a written constitution from the Shah - how the revolution got its name. Sparked a debate about separation of religion from the government.
The Constitution of 1906
Guaranteed direct elections, separation of powers, laws made by an elected legislature, popular sovereignty, and the Bill of Rights.
Guardian Council
A group of clerics who had the power to veto any legislation passed by the Majles.
The Pahlavis
Took power from the Majles and reestablished authoritarian rule. A hereditary dynasty.
The White Revolution
named because it was meant to counter communist (or red) influences - focused on land reform. It secularized Iran further by extending voting rights to women, restricting polygamy, and allowing women to work outside the home.
Pahlavi Foundation
A tax-exempt patronage system that controlled large companies that fed the pocketbooks of the shah and his supporters.
1979 Revolution
Unique because this revolution was almost completely religious in nature.
1979 Revolution
resulted in the establishment of a theocracy.
Problems with the shah
He was perceived as being totalitarian, broke the balance between the secular and religious state by secularizing Iran too much and too fast, ties to the West offended Iranian nationalists as well as the clergy.
Elite group of clerics
Rose to oppose the shah, lead a revolution, and eventually take over the government.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini
Lent success to the revolution because of his charismatic leadership, defended Islamic fundamentalism and articulated resentments toward the elite and the United States.
Two explosive revolutionary factors
Decreasing oil prices and increasing consumer prices, plus U.S. pressure on the shah to loosen his restraints on the opposition.
Official end of the Shah’s government
February 11, 1979. Ended with the famous announcement: “This is the voice of Iran, the voice of the true Iran, the voice of the Islamic Revolution.”
Assembly of Religious Experts
A 73-man assembly of clerics elected directly by the people.
Cultural Revolution
Shia leaders launched this program with goals that were very similar to Mao Zedong’s.
built and consolidated power
Until the Ayatollah Khomeini’s death in 1989, the clerics did this:
Satisfaction (legitimacy)
Economic well-being as both the petroleum prices and Iran’s economy rebounded, citizens rallying around the government in response to Iraq’s invasion, Khomeini’s charisma.
Ahmadinejad
a conservative who has antagonized western countries, although he has not isolated himself from them. He has asserted theocratic values and has appealed to Iranian nationalism to solidify his white (bloodless) coup of the reformists.
Religious cleavages
90% of Iranians are Shia Muslims, 10% are Sunni, and 1% are a combination of Jews, Christians, Zoroastrian, and Baha’i. These people face major cleavages.
Ethnicity
This cleavage is closely tied to religion, but other cultural differences distinguish minorities in Iran.
Social class
The peasantry and lower middle class are sources of support for the regime, but the middle and upper-middle classes are largely secularized and tend to be highly critical of the clerics and their control of society.
Reformers v. conservatives.
Conservatives want to keep the regime as it is, but reformers would like to see more secularization and democracy.
Pragmatic conservatives v. radical clerics
Distinct divisions among the clergy have led to many important disagreements among the top levels of policy-making. The conservatives favor liberal economic policies, but conservatives are generally willing to turn over economic management to liberally-inclined technocrats.
Equality with difference
Islamic policy toward women - basically justifying unfair treatment.
Factionalism
the splintering of the politcial elites based not just on points of view but also on personalities.
Plurality system
Elections are held using this method.
Jurists guardianship
The supreme leader and the Guardian Council work together to exercise this principle.
The president
Although he is democratically elected, the Constitution still requires him to be a pious Shiite who upholds Islamic principles.
Sharia and Qanun
The first is derived from God and is divine law, while the second is law made by the people’s elected representatives.
Supreme leader
Jurist guardianship; ultimate interpreter of sharia, appointed for life.
Guardian Council
Jurist guardianship, interpreter of sharia, six members selected by the supreme leader. Six members selected by the Majles, which is popularly elected; indirect democratic tie.
Assembly of Religious Experts
Jurist guardianship, interpreter of sharia. Directly elected by the people.
Expediency Council
Appointed by the supreme leader, most members are clerics.
Majles
Responsibility to uphold sharia, directly elected by the people, pass qanun (statutes)
Judiciary
Courts held to sharia law; subject to the judicial judgments of the supreme leader, Guardian Council. Court structure similar to those in democracies, “modern” penalties such as fines and imprisonment.
Conservative v. Reformists
FACTION: Conservatives uphold the traditional principles of the regime, but Reformists believe that political system needs significant reform, although they disagree on exactly what the reforms should be.
Statists v. Free-marketers
FACTION: Statists believe that the government should take an active role in controlling the economy, but the free-marketers want to remove price controls, lower business taxes, encourage private enterprise, and balance the budget.
Qom
The legitimacy of modern Iranian theocracy has its roots in Qom, a desert city about 60 miles south of Tehran.
Axis of evil
A statement by President Bush, saying that Iran, Iraq, North Korea, and their terrorist allies, constitute an axis of evil.
asymetric federalism
a system where power is devolved unequally across the country and its constituent regions, ofther then result of specific laws negotiated between the region and the central government.
Boris Berezovsky
Russian who became a rich Oligarch by buying up Russian industries after the fall of Communism and the beginning of “shock therapy.” He was exiled by the Russian government.
bolsheviks
Led by Vladimir Lenin it was the Russian communist party that took over the Russian goverment during WWI
boyars
Russian landholding aristocrats; possessed less political power than their western European counterparts
Catherine the Great
This was the empress of Russia who continued Peter’s goal to Westernizing Russia, created a new law code, and greatly expanded Russia
Central Committee
most important top government officials, a group of 300 party leaders that met twice a year
civil society in Russia
Despite high voter turnouts, participation in other forms of political activity is low. Russians usually don’t attend church, or belong to any clubs or groups of any kind. Only 1% belongs to a political party. Ethel describes civil society in Russia to be “undeveloped”
collective farms
government owned farms, workers were paid by government and they shared profits from products
collectivism
Putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one’s identity in terms of the groups one belongs to.
Confederation of Independent States
unites the fifteen former republics of the Soviet Union, has little power over its members, Russia, trade agreements bind them, nationality issue divide them, Putin’s involvement in elections in Ukraine was controversial, controversy in Estonia
conflict in Chechnya
A region in Russia, primarily Muslim, fought for years for independence, still strong, Russia is having trouble holding onto the region, been involved in terrorist acts, murders, kidnapping, explosions, bombings, ect.,
Constitution of 1993
Created the publicly-elected office of President, held in check by the Duma. It created a three-branch government. It is a semipresidential system and has a Constitutional Court
Constitutional Court
nineteen members are appointed by president; evaluate the constitutionality of all laws and decrees
Crimean War
A war fought in the middle of the nineteenth century between Russia on one side and Turkey, Britain, and France on the other. Russia was defeated and the independence of Turkey was guaranteed
CPRF
The Communist Party of the Russian Federation, it is the second-strongest party. The party emphasizes centralized planning and nationalism, and implies an intention to regain territories lost when the Soviet Union broke apart.
cultural heterogeneity in Russia
diversity in Russia; the name “Russian Federation” reflects this, with countless “republics” and “autonomous regions” based on ethnicity, but with borders impossible to draw because of the blend and locations of people
Decembrist Revolt
The 1825 plot by liberals (upper-class intelligentsia) to set up a constitutional monarchy or a republic. The plot failed, but the ideals remained.
decrees
official decisions or laws; can be made by the president
democratic centralism
…, a form of democracy in which the interests of the masses were discovered through discussion within the Communist party, and then decisions were made under central leadership to serve those interests
de-Stalinization
social process of neutralizing the influence of Joseph Stalin by revising his policies and removing monuments dedicated to him and renaming places named in his honor
Duma
lower house with 450 deputies, passes bills, approves budget, confirms president’s appointments, very limited powers, impeachment process is cumbersom
equality of result in Russia
…, the Communist regime instilled in the Russian people an appreciation for equality; this is very different from western “equality of opportunity” that sees “getting ahead” as a sign of initiative, hard work, and talent; as a result, the Russian political culture is not conducive to the development of capitalism
federal government structure in Russia
89 regions, each bound by treaty to the Federation, most regions are called “Republics”, many ruled themselves independently, authoritarian,
Federation Council
The 178-seat upper house of Russia. Wields relatively little power and represents local interests. It must approve bills that involve certain issues, and can reject legislation, but only within certain parameters.
Five Year Plans
Plans that Joseph Stalin introduced to industrialize the Soviet Union rapidly, beginning in 1928. They set goals for the output of steel, electricity, machinery, and most other products and were enforced by the police powers of the state. (781)
general secretary
Office created by Stalin in the Communist Party. Came to dominate the entire structure of the party. Power and authority flowed from the top down. Had authority over appointments and assignments at all levels.
glasnost
Policy of openness initiated by Gorbachev in the 1980s that provided increased opportunities for freedom of speech, association and the press in the Soviet Union.
Mikhail Gorbachev
…, Head of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991. His liberalization effort improved relations with the West, but he lost power after his reforms led to the collapse of Communist governments in eastern Europe.
Gorbachev’s three-pronged reform plan
glasnost, which allowed criticism of the government, democratization, which inserted democracy into the Communist Party with a president and elected representatives, and perestroika, which transferred economic powers held by the central government to private hands and the market economy
Gosplan
the State Planning Commission which oversaw Stalin’s series of five year plans
head of government, head of state
the president and the prime minister
Nikita Khrushchev
ruled the USSR from 1958-1964; lessened government control of soviet citizens; seeked peaceful coexistence with the West instead of confrontation
kulaks
Rich peasants in the Russian Empire who owned larger farms and used hired labour. They were their own class.
Alexander Lebed
A former paratrooper in the Russian Army, served briefly as Russia’s national security chief under president Boris Yeltsin before moving on to become one of Yeltsin’s most probable successors, fierce nationalist and an outspoken critic of corruption in Russian business and government
Lenin V.I.
was a Russian communist revolutionary, politician and political theorist, leader of the Russian SFSR from 1917, concurrently as Premier of the Soviet Union from 1922, until his death. Politically a Marxist, his theoretical contributions to Marxist thought are known as Leninism, which coupled with Marxian economic theory have collectively come to be known as Marxism-Leninism.
Liberal Democrats
…, the neofascist and racist opposition party led by Vladmir Zhirinovsky. Nationalistic.
Russian mafia
this interest group controls much more than underworld crime - they control local businesses, natural resources, and banks. They thrive on payoffs from businesses (“protection money,” money laundering, and deals that they make with Russian government officials, including members of the former KGB. They have murdered bankers, journalists, businessmen, and members of the Duma.
Marxism-Leninism
a communist ideology, officially based upon the theories of Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels and Vladimir Lenin, that promotes the development and creation of an international communist society through the leadership of a vanguard party presiding over a revolutionary socialist state that represents a dictatorship of the proletariat
Dmitri Medvedev
Served as Putin’s prime minister and Putin appointed him as president; when he was president, appointed Putin as his prime minister; handled domestic and social affairs while Putin handled foreign affairs
Mensheviks
…, Means “minority”. Group created from the split of the SDs, led by Martov. Tried to take power from Bolsheviks in Civil war beginning in 1918, but did not succeed.
near abroad
Russian term to describe the other fourteen republics of the former Soviet Union.
New Economic Policy
Policy proclaimed by Vladimir Lenin in 1924 to encourage the revival of the Soviet economy by allowing small private enterprises. Joseph Stalin ended the N.E.P. in 1928 and replaced it with a series of Five-Year Plans. (See also Lenin, Vladimir.) (p. 766)
nomenklatura
an ordered path from local party soviets to the commanding heights of leadership
oligarchy
form of government in which a few people have the power, Yeltsin created one using family
perestroika
a policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market based economy and society
Peter the Great
wanted to “modernize” Russia with a stronger army, navy, roads, communication, “Window on the West”, intrigued by the west, learned shipbuilding, brought engineers, carpenters, etc.
politburo
…, the chief executive and political committee of the Communist Party
proportional representation in Russia
all Duma seats are now assigned exclusively by proportional representation; parties must get at least 7% of the total vote to get any seats; this system was instituted by Putin; reduces number of parties in Duma
Vladimir Putin
President of Russia 2001-2008; reestablished the strong structure of the old regime; currently prime minister
Red Army/ White Army
two Russian factions that fought in a Civil War in 1918; the White Army was led by Russian Military Leaders and funded by the allied powers; the Red Army (a.k.a. Bolsheviks) was led by Lenin; Red Army won and Lenin came to power
Russian Orthodox Church
The church of Russia, branch of; supported the Tsar; There was a gap between poor parish peasants and rich bishops
secret speech
Khrushchev revealed the existance of a letter written by Lenin that was very critical of Stalin; used to denounce Stalin’s rules & practices
“shock therapy”
rapid transition to capitalism adopted by Yeltsin in 1992, which was supposed to involve liberalization of prices, privatization of state property, and stabilization of the Russian currency that had disastrous economic and social results
Slavophile vs. Westernizer
conflict over where the political sphere and social mentality of Russia is headed, either more democratic or more historically Russian
Stalinism
Stalin’s government system that was acheived in the name of Communism but was more like totalitarianism; benefited only government and relied on terror tactics, secret police, bogus trials and assassination
state corporatism
…, a political system in which the state requires all members of a particular economic sector to join an officially designated interest group
statism in Russia
…, Russia’s value of a strong state that could protect them from their geographic vulnerabilities in contrast to a taste for individualism and civil society; the expectation that the state will take an active role in the lives of its citizens
totalitarianism
government control over every aspect of public and private life
tsars
A Russian term for “Caesar” or ruler; the authoritarian rulers of the Russian empire before its collapse in the 1917 revolution
United Russia Party
Political party put together by the oligarchs of Russia to support Putin. Currently the dominant party in Russian politics, although it lacks a coherent ideology.
“Window on the West”
After the great Northern war, in the Treaty of Nystad, Russia made important gains in Latvia and Estonia in the Baltic Sea. (St. Petersburg)
Yobloko
a reformist party which stands for pro-democracy and is at risk of disappearing; lost all representation in the Duma due to the switch to proportional representation in 2007
Boris Yeltsin
, Was the first President of the Russian Federation from 1991 to 1999. The Yeltsin era was a traumatic period in Russian history—a period marked by widespread corruption, economic collapse, and enormous political and social problems. In June 1991 Yeltsin came to power on a wave of high expectations. On June 12 Yeltsin was elected president of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic with 57% of the vote, becoming the first popularly elected president in Russian history. But Yeltsin never recovered his popularity after endorsing radical economic reforms in early 1992 which were widely blamed for devastating the living standards of most of the Russian population. By the time he left office, Yeltsin was a deeply unpopular figure in Russia, with an approval rating as low as two percent by some estimates.
zemstvas
organ of rural self-government in the Russian Empire and Ukraine; established in 1864 to provide social and economic services, it became a significant liberal influence within imperial Russia
Vladimir Zhirinovsky
leader of the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, arguing for ultranationalist solutions to face postcommunist problems, envisioning the expansion of Russia to the Indian Ocean
Gennady Zyuganov
leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF); lost 1996 & 2000 elections
