IPOL midterm Flashcards
Defining politics
activity where people make, preserve, amend rules under which they live
Anti-politics
Anti-politics describes a sentiment or movement rejecting traditional political institutions, often due to disillusionment with the political elite or bureaucracy. It emerged with populist ideologies in the 20th century. The relevance lies in its ability to fuel populist movements that challenge democratic norms and government accountability.
Politics as public affairs
Politics as public affairs refers to the activities and decisions that concern the community or state, often focusing on governance, lawmaking, and citizenship.
- public=political-> institutions responsible for the organization of community life, paid with taxes, government courts, police, army.
- private=not political: funded individually, for own interests rather than for the society, family, private business, trade unions, clubs= civil society
Politics should be separated from private life!
“the personal is the political”
Feminists argue that “the personal is political,” challenging the traditional separation between public (political) and private (personal) spheres. This concept emerged in second-wave feminism, emphasizing how personal experiences, particularly regarding gender roles, are shaped by political power structures. It highlights the need for a broader understanding of politics, including gender, domestic labour, and social inequalities.
Politics as power
- struggle over scarce resources and power is the means through which the struggle is conducted
- power structured relationships, arrangements whereby a group controls another group
Lukes 3 dimensions!
Politics is all!
Constructivism
Constructivism is an international relations theory emphasizing how social structures, ideas, and identities shape state behaviour and the international system. It originated in the late 20th century as a response to realism and liberalism. Its relevance lies in understanding the non-material aspects of global politics, like culture, norms, and identity.
Postcolonialism
Postcolonialism critically examines colonialism’s lasting impacts on societies, politics, and global power dynamics. It emerged after World War II, as formerly colonized nations gained independence, and scholars like Frantz Fanon and Edward Said explored these themes. Its relevance lies in addressing race, identity, and inequality issues in the global order.
Behaviourism
Behaviourism is an approach to the study of politics as an arena focuses on observable behaviour rather than subjective beliefs or feelings. It emerged in the mid-20th century, influenced by psychology and the desire for more empirical, measurable studies of political actions. Behaviourism’s relevance is seen in its contribution to the empirical analysis of voting patterns, political participation, and decision-making.
Positivism
Positivism is a philosophy that emphasizes the use of scientific methods to study the social world, based on the assumption that objective knowledge can be derived from empirical observation. Auguste Comte introduced the concept in the 19th century. It’s relevant for promoting systematic data collection and analysis in political science, laying the foundation for disciplines like behaviorism.
Rational-choice theory
Rational-choice theory is an approach to the study of politics as an arena posits that individuals decide by rationally weighing the costs and benefits to maximize their advantage. It has roots in economics and was applied to political science in the mid-20th century. The relevance of this theory is evident in its ability to explain voting behaviour, political negotiations, and policy choices through self-interest and strategic calculations.
Institutionalism
Institutionalism is an approach to the study of politics as an arena that emphasizes the role of formal institutions, such as laws and political structures, in shaping political behaviour. Its origins date back to the early 20th century, but it gained renewed attention with the development of “new institutionalism” in the 1980s. Its relevance shows how institutions, not just individual actions, can influence long-term political outcomes.
Politics as an arena
Politics as an arena views political life as taking place in distinct institutional spaces, like parliaments, courts, or governments. This concept highlights the locations where power struggles and debates over public policy happen. Understanding how different political actors come together in a formalized setting to influence outcomes is relevant.
Politics as compromise and consensus
This view defines politics as a process in reaching agreements and settling differences, often through negotiation. Its origins can be linked to liberal democratic thought, particularly the work of political theorists like John Locke. It’s relevant for highlighting how democratic institutions function through compromise to maintain social order and stability.
Post-positivism
Post-positivism critiques the idea that social sciences can be studied with the same objectivity as the natural sciences, acknowledging that power dynamics and subjectivity influence knowledge. Emerging in the late 20th century, post-positivism highlights the importance of context, meaning, and the role of ideologies in research. It is relevant for challenging traditional methodologies and advocating for a more nuanced understanding of political phenomena.
Comparison: Feminism vs. Marxism – Politics as a Process
Feminism views politics as a process rooted in personal and structural power dynamics, particularly concerning gender inequality. Feminist theories, especially from second-wave feminism, argue that the personal is political, meaning that broader political structures shape everyday experiences (like gender roles or domestic life). Feminists view political processes as crucial for challenging patriarchal systems, advocating for inclusion, and transforming society through intersectional and inclusive policies.
Marxism interprets politics as a process driven by class struggle and the material conditions of society. According to Marxist theory, political processes are an expression of the economic base, with the ruling class (bourgeoisie) maintaining control over the state apparatus to perpetuate capitalism. Marxists see politics as a revolutionary process where the working class (proletariat) will eventually overthrow the capitalist system and establish a classless society.
Comparison:
While feminism and Marxism see politics as a process influenced by power and inequality, feminism focuses on gender and intersectional struggles, while Marxism centres on economic class conflict. Feminism seeks to reform or transform various structures, whereas Marxism aims to completely overhaul economic systems through revolution. Both aim to redistribute power but focus on different primary axes of oppression.
Ideology
Ideology is a coherent set of beliefs, values, and ideas that shape political, social, and economic systems, guiding behaviour and policy. It includes explicit political doctrines (e.g., liberalism, Marxism) and implicit cultural or social assumptions. Ideology originated in the Enlightenment as a concept to understand human belief systems, and its relevance lies in its power to mobilize movements, justify authority, and explain the social world.
All ideologies, therefore:
(1) offer an account of the existing order, usually in the form of a ‘world-view’
(2) provide a model of a desired future, a vision of the Good Society
(3) outline how political change can and should be brought about.
Comparison: Marxist vs. Conservative Approach to Ideology
Marxism views ideology as a tool the ruling class uses to maintain its dominance over the working class. In Marxist theory, ideology masks capitalism’s true exploitative nature by promoting beliefs that justify the status quo (e.g., meritocracy, individualism). Originating from Karl Marx’s analysis of capitalism in the 19th century, the relevance of this view is that ideology is seen as part of the superstructure that reflects and sustains the economic base, preventing the working class from realizing their exploitation (false consciousness). Marxists aim to expose these ideologies and replace them with revolutionary socialist ideas.
Conservatism views ideology as guiding principles or traditions that provide stability and continuity to society. Conservatives often reject radical change, emphasizing the importance of established institutions, cultural values, and social hierarchies. This approach, originating from thinkers like Edmund Burke in response to the French Revolution, values ideology for its ability to maintain social order and preserve the wisdom of past generations. Conservatives see ideology not as an illusion or manipulation but as a necessary framework to support a well-functioning, stable society.
Comparison:
While Marxists view ideology as a tool of oppression that serves the ruling class by disguising social inequalities, conservatives view ideology as a positive force that maintains societal order and continuity. Marxists argue that ideologies must be overthrown for revolutionary change, whereas conservatives believe stable ideologies rooted in tradition are essential to avoid chaos and uphold social cohesion. In essence, Marxism sees ideology as a control mechanism, while conservatism sees it as a source of stability.
Classical liberalism
Classical liberalism advocates for individual liberty, limited government, free markets, and the protection of private property. It emerged in the 17th and 18th centuries with thinkers like John Locke and Adam Smith. Its relevance lies in shaping modern democratic institutions and capitalist economies, emphasizing personal freedom and the rule of law.
Modern liberalism
Modern liberalism expands classical liberalism by advocating for government intervention to promote social justice, equality, and welfare. It emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as a response to the social inequalities caused by industrial capitalism. Its relevance is seen in creating welfare states, social safety nets, and progressive policies.
Neoliberalism
Neoliberalism emphasizes free markets, deregulation, privatization, and reducing the state’s role in economic affairs. It gained prominence in the 1970s and 1980s with leaders like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan. Neoliberalism’s relevance lies in its influence on globalization, economic policies, and the rise of market-driven societies.
The New Right
- Economic Liberalism: Favoring deregulation, lower taxes, and privatization of state-owned enterprises.
- Social Conservatism: Promoting traditional family values, national sovereignty, and a tough stance on law and order.
- Anti-Welfare State: Criticizing welfare programs for creating dependency and advocating for personal responsibility and limited government intervention in social welfare. ce pula
Neoconservatism
Neoconservatism advocates for a strong national defence, a moral foreign policy, and the promotion of democracy abroad, often through military intervention. It originated in the US during the 1960s as a reaction against the New Left and the perceived moral decline of liberalism. Its relevance is seen in US foreign policy, particularly during the George W. Bush administration.
Classical Marxism
Classical Marxism, based on the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, views society through the lens of class struggle, with the ultimate goal of achieving a classless, communist society. Originating in the 19th century during the Industrial Revolution, its relevance lies in its critique of capitalism and its influence on socialist movements and revolutions, including the Russian Revolution.
Neo-Marxism
Neo-Marxism extends classical Marxist analysis by incorporating critiques of culture, ideology, and politics, particularly the role of the media and state in maintaining capitalism. It emerged in the mid-20th century with thinkers like the Frankfurt School. Neo-Marxism’s relevance lies in its ability to explain power structures in modern capitalist societies beyond just economic factors.
Feminism (liberal, radical, and social):
- Liberal feminism focuses on achieving gender equality through legal reforms and equal opportunities, stemming from Enlightenment ideals of individual rights.
- Radical feminism argues that patriarchy is the root of women’s oppression and calls for a complete rethinking of gender relations. It emerged in the 1960s.
- Social feminism combines Marxist and feminist ideas, seeing capitalism and patriarchy as intertwined systems of oppression. Its relevance is seen in critiques of both class and gender inequality.
Holism
Holism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the importance of whole systems rather than just their parts in understanding complexity. It originated from early 20th-century biology and systems theory. Its relevance lies in its application to the social sciences, where it encourages analyzing societies as interconnected wholes rather than isolated components. GREEN IDEOLOGY
Religious fundamentalism
Religious fundamentalism refers to the strict adherence to traditional religious beliefs and practices, often rejecting modernity and secularism. It emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly among conservative Protestant groups in the US. The relevance of fundamentalism today is seen in various global movements where religious groups resist secular influences and seek to reassert traditional values in politics and society.
Cosmopolitanism
Cosmopolitanism advocates for global citizenship, transcending national boundaries and embracing the idea that all humans belong to a single community. Its origins trace back to ancient Greek philosophers like the Cynics and Stoics. Cosmopolitanism’s relevance is reflected in contemporary discussions on globalization, human rights, and global governance.
Post-decolonialism
Post-decolonialism critically examines the lasting impact of colonialism on former colonies and the ongoing cultural, political, and economic inequalities that persist in the postcolonial era. It emerged in the mid-20th century as scholars like Edward Said and Frantz Fanon explored these themes. Its relevance addresses how colonial power dynamics continue to shape global relations, identities, and development, particularly in former colonies.
Intersectionality
Intersectionality is a framework that examines how various forms of oppression (e.g., race, gender, class) intersect and shape individual experiences. Kimberlé Crenshaw coined it in the late 20th century within feminist and critical race theory. Its relevance is in highlighting the complexity of social inequalities and advocating for more nuanced approaches to social justice.
Populism
Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of the ‘ordinary people’ against a perceived corrupt elite. It can emerge on both the left and right of the political spectrum and has roots in 19th-century movements such as the People’s Party in the US. Populism’s relevance is seen in the rise of leaders and movements that challenge traditional political elites, appealing to popular dissatisfaction with the status quo, often through simplified rhetoric and direct, charismatic leadership.
Socialism (pro and against arguments on its success or failure):
Pro-Socialism: Advocates argue that socialism provides a more equitable distribution of wealth and resources, reduces income inequality, and ensures universal access to essential services like healthcare and education. Supporters claim that socialist policies, such as Scandinavia, have resulted in higher living standards, social justice, and better safety nets.
Against Socialism: Critics argue that socialism stifles economic innovation, reduces individual freedoms, and leads to inefficient resource management, as seen in historical examples like the Soviet Union or Venezuela. They assert that centralized planning and the lack of market incentives result in stagnation and authoritarianism.
Is Socialism failing or not?
The success or failure of socialism depends on its implementation. In mixed economies like Northern Europe, socialist policies coexist with capitalist markets, and the system is generally considered successful. In fully planned economies, the centralization of power and lack of market incentives have often led to economic failure and political repression. Thus, the debate continues, with successes and failures fueling both sides.
nation-state
A nation-state is a political entity that aligns political and national identity, where a distinct nation (people with a shared language, culture, or history) governs itself within a defined territory. The concept originated in Europe in the 17th century, particularly after the Treaty of Westphalia (1648). Its relevance today lies in its role as the dominant form of political organization, where sovereignty and self-determination are central to international relations.
Five Key Features of a State
- territorial sovereignty
- has public institutions (funded by taxation)
- monopoly on violence
- exercises legitimate power and reflects the common good (will)
- geographically defined
International visions of a state
The Montenegro Convention on the Rights and Duties of the State (1933) established a legal framework for defining a state in international law. According to this convention, a state must have:
A permanent population
A defined territory
A government
The capacity to enter into relations with other states.
This convention ensures that states have equal rights and obligations in the international system.
Pluralistic state
Pluralism views the state as a neutral body that arbitrates between competing interest groups. Originating from liberal democratic theory, it argues that power is dispersed, and no single group dominates. This theory highlights the importance of elections, interest groups, and civil society in shaping state policy.
capitalist state
According to Marxist theory, the capitalist state serves the interests of the ruling capitalist class by maintaining capitalism’s economic system. Originating from Karl Marx, the theory suggests that the state is an instrument of class oppression, ensuring the reproduction of capitalist relations and preventing working-class revolution.
leviathan state
The Leviathan state, coined by Thomas Hobbes, refers to a state with immense power that individuals consent to for protection and order. Hobbes argued that, in a state of nature, life would be “nasty, brutish, and short,” so people surrender their freedom to a powerful state to maintain security and prevent chaos.
patriarchal state
Feminist theory argues that the state is inherently patriarchal, reinforcing male dominance and gender inequality through its laws, policies, and institutions. Originating from radical feminist thought, this theory critiques the state’s role in maintaining the subjugation of women and challenges the male-centric nature of governance.
social-democratic state
A social-democratic state actively intervenes in the economy to reduce inequalities and provide welfare services like healthcare, education, and unemployment benefits. Originating from democratic socialism and Keynesian economics, it seeks to balance free markets with social justice, as seen in countries like Sweden or Denmark.
minimal state
The minimal state, advocated by classical liberals and libertarians, performs only basic functions such as maintaining law and order, protecting property rights, and defending the country. The idea, from thinkers like Adam Smith, limits state intervention in economic and social life, relying on free markets and individual autonomy.
collectivized state
A collectivized state involves the public ownership of the means of production, with the state playing a central role in economic planning and distribution. It originates from Marxist theory and was implemented in Soviet-style socialist regimes, where the state controls industries and resources to achieve classless society goals.
totalitarian state
A totalitarian state exerts total control over all aspects of public and private life, including the economy, politics, media, and individual freedoms. This form of state is associated with dictatorships like Nazi Germany or Stalinist USSR, where the state uses propaganda, surveillance, and repression to maintain power. Originating in the 20th century, it remains a powerful concept for understanding extreme forms of authoritarianism.
Government overload (supply-side pressures)
Government overload is when governments tend to provide more public services and programs than what citizens actually demand or need. This thesis suggests that the government, driven by bureaucrats, politicians, or interest groups, expands its role and increases public spending beyond the optimal level for society.
Social contract theory
Social contract theory is a philosophical concept that suggests individuals consent, either explicitly or implicitly, to form a society and a government in exchange for protection and preserving certain rights. It explores the relationship between individuals and the state, asserting that the legitimacy of political authority derives from a mutual agreement or contract among the people.
Liberal nationalism
Liberal nationalism emphasizes individual rights and freedoms within the context of national identity. It promotes self-determination and democratic governance while advocating for the inclusion of diverse groups within the nation. The concept emerged in the 19th century as a response to imperialism, seeking to unite people around shared values and principles rather than ethnicity or religion.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty refers to a state’s supreme authority to govern itself, make its own laws, and conduct its affairs without external interference. It encompasses internal sovereignty (control over domestic policies and governance) and external sovereignty (recognition and engagement in international relations). The concept, solidified by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, remains fundamental in international law and politics, influencing debates on self-determination, intervention, and global governance.
Expansionist nationalism
Expansionist nationalism advocates for the growth of a nation’s territory or influence, often at the expense of other nations or groups. It is driven by a belief in national superiority or destiny, leading to aggressive foreign policies or territorial claims. This ideology has historical roots in imperialism and colonialism, exemplified by movements that sought to expand national boundaries through conquest.
Conservative nationalism
Conservative nationalism focuses on preserving traditional cultural, social, and political values within a nation, often prioritizing national identity and heritage over progressive changes. It emerged as a reaction against liberalism and globalization, advocating for strong state control and policies emphasising national unity. This form of nationalism often emphasizes the importance of shared history and cultural heritage.
Chauvinism
Chauvinism refers to an excessive and often aggressive loyalty to one’s own nation, accompanied by a belief in its superiority over others. This extreme form of nationalism can manifest in militarism, xenophobia, and intolerance towards other cultures or nations. The term originated during the French Revolution and is often used to critique overly patriotic or jingoistic sentiments.
Anti-colonial nationalism
Anti-colonial nationalism is a political movement to achieve independence and self-determination for colonized nations and peoples. It arose in response to colonial oppression, advocating for the rights and identity of indigenous populations. Key figures in this movement, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Kwame Nkrumah, emphasized cultural pride, unity, and resistance against colonial powers.
Civic nationalism
Civic nationalism defines the nation based on shared values, citizenship, and political institutions rather than ethnic or cultural identity. It promotes inclusion and equality among citizens, emphasizing loyalty to the state and its democratic principles. This form of nationalism is often seen in modern liberal democracies, where national identity is tied to citizenship rather than ethnicity.
Ethnic nationalism
Ethnic nationalism is based on the belief that a nation is defined by shared ethnicity, culture, language, or ancestry. It emphasizes the importance of a common heritage and often seeks to create a nation-state that aligns political boundaries with ethnic identities. This form of nationalism can lead to exclusionary practices and conflicts, as seen in various historical separatist movements.
Traditional authority
Traditional authority is a form of leadership based on established customs, practices, and social structures, where power is legitimized through long-standing traditions and cultural norms. This type of authority often arises in societies with strong historical legacies and is exemplified by monarchies or tribal systems. Max Weber identified traditional authority as one of the three ideal types of authority, emphasizing its stability and continuity within society.
Charismatic authority
Charismatic authority stems from a leader’s personal appeal, extraordinary qualities, or charisma, inspiring loyalty and devotion among followers. This form of authority relies on the leader’s ability to connect emotionally with the populace, often seen in revolutionary or transformative figures like Martin Luther King Jr. or Nelson Mandela. While charismatic authority can mobilize support and bring about significant change, it may lack institutional stability, making it susceptible to decline after the leader’s departure.
Legal-rational authority
Legal-rational authority is based on established laws, rules, and procedures that grant legitimacy to institutions and their leaders. This form of authority is characteristic of modern bureaucracies and democratic systems, where power derives from the legal framework rather than personal attributes or traditions. Max Weber emphasized that legal-rational authority promotes efficiency and predictability in governance, as it relies on rational-legal norms.
general will
The general will is a concept introduced by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It refers to the collective will of the citizenry that aims for the common good or the public interest. It emphasizes that individuals should prioritize the community’s welfare over personal interests in a democratic society. Rousseau argued that the general will should guide political decisions, ensuring that governance reflects the shared values and aspirations of the people.
Democratic legitimacy
Democratic legitimacy refers to the right of a government to rule based on the consent and participation of the governed, often expressed through free and fair elections. It relies on accountability, transparency, and adherence to the rule of law, ensuring political authority is derived from the people’s will. In a democratic context, legitimacy is essential for fostering trust and cooperation between the state and its citizens.
Non-democratic
Non-democratic legitimacy refers to the justification of political authority that does not stem from popular consent or democratic principles. This can include authoritarian regimes that maintain power through coercion, tradition, or ideological doctrines rather than electoral processes. While non-democratic legitimacy may rely on factors such as stability or economic performance, it often faces accountability and popular acceptance challenges.
Limited democracy
- Democracy serves as a mechanism to protect citizens from government overreach, primarily through voting in competitive elections.
- It ensures accountability through a constitutional democracy, with checks on government power via a separation of powers (executive, legislature, judiciary).
- Political equality is understood as equal voting rights.
- Citizens enjoy basic rights and freedoms like freedom of expression and freedom from arbitrary arrest.
- It aligns with laissez-faire capitalism, emphasizing individual responsibility for economic and social circumstances.
Classical democracy
- Direct, mass participation in government without intermediaries.
- Citizens were actively engaged in both public office and decision-making.
- Only male Athenian-born citizens over 20 could participate.
- Excluded the majority of the population (women, slaves, foreigners).
- Political involvement was facilitated by the institution of slavery and the exclusion of women from public life.
Developmental democracy
- Focuses on the development of individuals and the community through active participation in political life.
- Promotes direct democracy and the concept of the general will—the idea that citizens should act selflessly to achieve the common good.
- Advocates for economic equality, as Rousseau believed that extreme wealth disparities hinder true democracy.
- Emphasizes the role of grass-roots democracy, where decision-making takes place at the lowest possible level, empowering citizens in their local communities.
- Mill promoted a form of deliberative democracy, where discussion and debate play a central role in decision-making, ensuring more thoughtful and educated political participation.
Socialist (peoples ) democracy
- Proletarian Democracy: Aimed to replace bourgeois democracy with a system controlled by the working class, theoretically achieving true equality through the common ownership of resources.
- Vanguard Party: Under Leninist democracy, the Communist Party, organized on the principle of democratic centralism, claimed to represent the interests of the proletariat and guide them towards revolutionary goals.
- Direct Democracy: Early Marxist models, like the Paris Commune, emphasized direct participation by the working class in decision-making processes.
- Centralization: In practice, Leninist regimes often resulted in centralized control, with the Communist Party consolidating power rather than promoting widespread democratic participation.
The pluralist view of democracy
The pluralist view of democracy posits that power is distributed among multiple interest groups, each competing to influence policy and governance. This perspective emphasizes that diverse viewpoints and interests can coexist within a democratic system, with political outcomes resulting from negotiation and compromise among competing factions. Pluralism underscores the importance of civil society and participation in shaping public policy.
The elitist view of democracy
The elitist view of democracy argues that political power is concentrated in the hands of a small, elite group, regardless of formal democratic structures. This perspective suggests that while elections may occur, real decision-making power often lies with a few individuals or organizations with the resources and influence to shape policy. Elitism critiques the notion of equal participation, highlighting the disparities within democratic systems.
The corporatist view of democracy
The corporatist view of democracy emphasizes the role of organized interest groups, such as labour unions and business associations, in shaping political decisions. In this model, the government collaborates with these groups to manage societal interests and maintain social order, often integrating them into policymaking. Corporatism can create a more stable political environment but may also limit broader democratic participation by privileging specific interests.
The new right view of democracy
The new right view of democracy advocates for a limited role of the state in economic affairs, emphasizing free markets, individualism, and traditional values. This perspective often critiques welfare policies and regulatory frameworks, arguing that they undermine personal responsibility and economic freedom. Proponents of the new right seek to align democratic governance with neoliberal principles, promoting policies that enhance individual liberties and reduce state intervention.
The Marxist view of democracy
The Marxist view of democracy critiques traditional liberal democracy as a façade that primarily serves the interests of the capitalist class while marginalizing the working class. Marxists argue that true democracy can only be achieved by abolishing capitalism and establishing a socialist system where the means of production are collectively owned. In this framework, democracy is linked to economic equality and the empowerment of the proletariat, emphasizing the need for class struggle to achieve genuine political representation.
The cosmopolitan view of democracy
The cosmopolitan view of democracy emphasizes global citizenship and the interconnectedness of societies, advocating for democratic practices that transcend national borders. It argues for addressing global issues, such as human rights and environmental sustainability, through inclusive and participatory governance. Cosmopolitan democracy seeks to expand democratic principles beyond the nation-state, fostering cooperation and accountability on a global scale.
Western liberal democracies
Western liberal democracies are political systems characterized by free and fair elections, protection of individual rights, rule of law, and a separation of powers. These democracies prioritize civil liberties, political pluralism, and institutional checks and balances to prevent the concentration of power. The roots of Western liberal democracy can be traced back to Enlightenment principles and the development of constitutional governance, emphasizing the importance of individual freedoms and democratic participation.
East Asian political regimes
East Asian political regimes exhibit a variety of governance styles, ranging from authoritarian to semi-democratic systems, often characterized by a strong state role in economic development. Some countries, like South Korea and Taiwan, have transitioned to democratic governance, while others, like China and Vietnam, maintain one-party rule with limited political pluralism. These regimes often prioritize economic growth and stability over political freedoms, leading to unique models of governance that blend economic development with varying degrees of political control.
Illiberal democracies
Illiberal democracies are political systems that maintain the outward appearance of democratic processes, such as elections but lack essential democratic principles like the rule of law, civil liberties, and genuine political competition. In these regimes, leaders may manipulate electoral processes, restrict freedom of speech, and undermine independent institutions to maintain power. Illiberal democracies often emerge where populist movements gain traction, leading to a decline in democratic norms while still claiming legitimacy through electoral mechanisms.
State-centric political economy
State-centric political economy emphasizes the state’s role in shaping economic policies, institutions, and outcomes. It argues that government actions, regulations, and interventions are crucial for understanding how economic systems operate, particularly in addressing issues like inequality, development, and international trade. This perspective contrasts with more market-oriented theories prioritising free-market mechanisms over state involvement.
Islamic regimes
Islamic regimes are political systems where governance is influenced or guided by Islamic principles and laws (Sharia). These regimes can vary widely in their application of Islamic law, from moderate interpretations in countries like Turkey to more strict implementations in nations like Iran or Saudi Arabia. Islamic regimes often emphasize the importance of religious authority in governance, balancing between modern state functions and adherence to traditional Islamic values, which can impact areas such as law, education, and civil rights.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is an economic theory and practice that emerged from the 16th to 18th centuries. It advocates for a strong role of the state in managing the economy to increase national wealth and power. It emphasizes protectionist policies, such as tariffs and trade monopolies, to achieve a favourable trade balance and accumulate precious metals. Mercantilism views economic activity as a zero-sum game, where one nation’s gain comes at the expense of another, thus prioritizing state intervention in economic matters.
Military regimes
Military regimes are political systems where the armed forces exert control over governance, often through coups or military rule. In these regimes, military leaders may suspend democratic processes, restrict civil liberties, and govern through authoritarian means. Military regimes often justify their rule by citing the need for stability and national security. Still, they frequently face opposition and calls for democratic reforms, particularly in contexts where civilian governments have been ousted.
Marxist political economy
Marxist political economy analyzes the relationship between capitalism, class struggle, and economic systems, emphasizing how economic structures influence political power and social relations. It critiques capitalism for creating inequality and exploitation, positing that the ruling class (bourgeoisie) maintains power over the working class (proletariat) through economic means. This framework seeks to uncover the underlying dynamics of capitalist economies and advocates for revolutionary change towards a socialist system.
