HOPT2

Question 1

will of all

Answer 1

takes private interest into account, and is no more than a sum of particular wills: but take away from these same wills the pluses and minuses that cancel one another.

Question 2

general will

Answer 2

only the common interest

Question 3

adaptive preferences

Answer 3

our wants are shaped by our environment/institutions/ culture/ education (Stockholm syndrome; parable of sour grapes)

Question 4

autonomy

Answer 4

giving a law to oneself

Question 5

modern republicanism

Answer 5

political liberty, understood as non-domination or independence from arbitrary. This pushes towars equality among those who are free.

not anti-monarchist

Question 6

Rousseau’s republicanism

Answer 6

to be governed by impartial laws

Question 7

prudence for rousseau

Answer 7

self-interest, but not moral. this is about the show of force, it is not freedom. Self-care from prudence makes one immoral.

others think that being prudencial is a sign of virtue

Question 8

general will

Answer 8

• The social contract is done by the people as a corporate and indivisible body.
  -Corporate in the medieval sense is a legal body. (always there)
  -The people always remain sovereign.
  -Not so in Hobbes (where sovereignty is created and immediately gifted to a person/institution)
• The people is composed of individuals who are persons (moral agents)
• The people generate a general will, which is legitimate authority (to be obeyed)
• The legitimate will just is our (legitimate) collective power.
  -The general will can use force: “he [who disobeys] will be forced to be free”

institutions can mentain permanent identity (like old ass universities)

Question 9

general will in practice

Answer 9

• general will is always oriented for the common good
• in the state of nature we have a lot of social conflicts, and the very reason to have a state is to pacify the conflicts (hobbes), we only get to the point on contract if there is a wide agreement on what is good
• without having something in common above basic survival-> no society could exist
• sovereignity= the excersice of general will, cannot be alienated.
• the only proper law is the law you give to yourself. you are part of the sovereign, and subject to the sovereign.
• simmilar to master mo, that source of conflict is disagreement on what is in common interest
• only where each self-interest agrees with the common interest can there be a general will

! general will is violated when common good de facto only serves some private/ partial interests. BUT is also violated when there is nothing in common and above each will. (there is a general will when there is common interest in something: survival of the nation)

Question 10

how do we know there is a general will?

Answer 10

• Full information
• No communication/discussion: “each citizen should think only his own thoughts”
• General Agreement
• No factions
• There has to be unanimity/ near unanimity
• assumes that if given this space to decide we are naturally good, and when given full information we will make a good choice
• you canot expect this in a corrupt/ faction environment: no party politics, no public debate, no fake news.

shared commitement to the common good that we can agree by when not persuaded by others and we have full information about it

Question 11

the limits of the general will

Answer 11

• not about particular people= impartial-> policies on particular interests/ group would be illigitimate
• it is only about general features of political society

“every authentic act of the general will, binds or favours all the citizens equally; the Sovereign… draws no distinctions between those of whom it is made up.”

Question 12

when is the state legitimate?

Answer 12

Hobbes: The state is legitimate as long as the sovereign provides peace, security, and order, and the people submit to absolute authority. There is no right to revolt.

Locke: The state is legitimate if it protects individual rights (life, liberty, property) and operates with the consent of the governed. If the government violates this, the people have the right to revolt.

Rousseau: The state is legitimate when it is based on the general will of the people, promotes equality, and reflects the common good. It requires direct democracy and participation from all citizens. So a legitimate state is only that which free and equal individuals agreed that is just. A state can have just atuhority but no legitimacy, like you consented for something out of impulse, it makes it just auhtotiy but illegitimate.

Kant: The state is legitimate if it operates according to principles that all rational beings could will freely, aligning with his idea of universal moral law from his ethics.

O societate este legitimă doar atunci când este guvernată în conformitate cu voința generală, deoarece în acest caz, cetățenii ascultă de legi pe care ei înșiși le-au creat, menținându-și astfel libertatea.

Question 13

social contracts

Answer 13

Hobbes: Saw the social contract as a real agreement where people give up rights to a sovereign for security.

Locke: Saw it as a mutual agreement between the people and government to protect natural rights.

Rousseau: Saw it as a true contract among individuals to form a collective “general will.”

Kant: Sees it as an idea of reason—a principle that justifies government rather than an actual contract signed in history.

Question 14

bro on human nature

Answer 14

Rousseau rejected the classical idea of a fixed, universal human nature. Instead, he argued that what we observe as “human nature” is actually a product of society. In his view, humans in the state of nature were peaceful, independent, and driven by basic needs, but civilization corrupted them, introducing inequality, selfishness, and dependence. For Rousseau, human nature is malleable and shaped by social and historical conditions, rather than being static and predetermined.

Question 15

what is freedom?

Answer 15

Hobbes: freedom is to do what you want wihtout having any constrains. Freedom is the lack of constraints on wanting satisfaction. (One is more free the fewer constraints he has).
Spinoza: Our sense of freedom rests on an illusion and ignorance-> to be free is to act from reason, so with adequate knowledge. Only if you know what you are doing are you really in self-control; the source/ground of action matters. To be free turns on the right motive/reason/ground (the will is irrelevant). If you understand or know (not what you feel or sense) this is the condition of the true freedom.
Rousseau: If we act from impulse we are slaves, is when we act to a law which we perscribe to ourselves than we are free. Being autonomous on the individual and political level, that is what it means to be free. Political liberty means being governed by impartial laws. If one acts in a his self-interest in society (pricence being immoral), one can never be free. But, in society even after the social contract, one is free only if he follows the laws that one made-> this can only happen if one is part of the sovereign.
State of nature-> social contract-> general will= mechanism with which you do not give up freedom.
Kant: one is free when he acts morally.
Marx: Marx saw freedom as the ability to fully develop one’s human potential, which could only be achieved by abolishing class oppression and creating a communist society where individuals are not constrained by economic necessity or exploitation.
Mill: Mill viewed freedom as the ability of individuals to think and act as they choose, limited only by the need to prevent harm to others.

Question 16

transition problem

Answer 16

how do we get from any status quo to create a normatively desirable or ideal political future with a population raised under bad institutions (or worse, that is, bad breeding).

In Rousseau: under what conditions can we expect a people capable of exercising the general will to form?

Question 17

divine legistlator

Answer 17

Legislator is somebody with no interest in society that is being set up and can so solve the transition problem. He stands outside the constitution or people, but acts in their benefit. Must create institutions that aim at: liberty, equality, produce the right social spirit (civic religion)-> this is how you get real constitution. He has to use religious symbols for dumb ppl to buy into social life (noble lie).

• the legistlator has to have a great soul (plato, aristotle)
• not possible in the state on nature, cause we are roughly equal
• so a great soul is only possible after (bad societies) have generated (with force) “natural seeming” hierarchies in human nature
• history prepares the time for a legistlator to arrive and for the general will to happen
• ## vindicatory story, gives meaning to pain and evil, for the reason of creating a creat leader (history rather than god giving vindication)

their interest will affect their decision, needs somebody impartial

Legislatorul are un rol crucial, acela de a ghida poporul în înțelegerea voinței generale și de a formula legi care să o reflecte. Ar trebui să fie o inteligență superioară, detașată de pasiunile umane, capabilă să înțeleagă natura umană și să creeze instituții durabile care să promoveze binele comun.

Question 18

secular theodicy

Answer 18

secular theodicy is an explanation of historical suffering as a necessary force for progress, without relying on divine intervention, arguing that hardship ultimately leads to a better future.

EX:
Marx: Capitalist exploitation → Revolution → Communism.
Kant: Conflict and wars → Rational moral progress → Just society.
Rousseau: Social inequality → Political awakening → Direct democracy.

! Class conflict by itself does not drive history, but rather the material conditions that drive history forward; these generate social tensions → which generate disorder but also new social conditions

Question 19

social contract characteristics

Answer 19

• State of nature
• Individualism
• Humans are born free and equal
• Natural rights, some of which are given up in the contract
• Popular consent source of political authority
• No real claim to historical accuracy
  Rather ‘idea of reason’: only those political systems to which free and equal individuals could have agreed to is just

problems with them:
(a) justice and legitimacy can come apart; (so too demanding)
(b) social contract never exists (so like institutions who are not based on consest), so all states are illegitimate?

Question 20

What is Rousseau’s view on property and inequality?

Answer 20

• Close to Locke (labor, etc.), but avoids Locke’s accommodation of imperialism.
• Inhabited land is simply not available for new owners (so protects, natives and aborigens.
• Rousseau is critical of private property, seeing it as a source of inequality and social division. In Discourse on the Origin and Foundations of Inequality Among Men, he argues that the introduction of property led to competition, jealousy, and corruption, moving society away from the equality found in the state of nature. While not advocating for the abolition of property, Rousseau supports redistribution to limit extreme wealth and prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a few, aiming to ensure the common good over individual accumulation.originals), even if you work on it
• Property rights are only absolute when it comes to necessaries of life (also Adam Smith’s view). Once your subsistances met, the rest of humanity has the same right to the land.

Question 21

Why is sovereignity inailenable and indivisible?

Answer 21

Suveranitatea este inalienabilă deoarece voința nu se poate transfera, la fel cum nici nu poate fi reprezentată decât de ea însăși; orice încercare de alienare ar însemna renunțarea la libertate. Este indivizibilă deoarece voința este generală sau nu este; divizarea suveranității ar duce la voințe particulare care nu ar mai reprezenta interesul comun.

Question 22

burke

representative government

Answer 22

• A representative was not a delegate; he owed his constituents his intelligence and his judgment, not his obedience to whatever they might think at any given moment.
• They had no right to mandate him, and he had no obligation to act as they would have mandated.
• He owed them a clear statement of the principles on which he would make up his mind once in Parliament; if they disliked his principles, they should vote accordingly.
• a representative represents those who voted against him
  as well as those who voted for him, and represents those who had no vote in the
  election at all.

Question 23

what is burke’s ideal form of governance?

Answer 23

A properly balanced constitutional monarchy in which a strong legislature holds an uncorrupt executive in check

not absolute monarchy!!!

Question 24

burke on natural law

Answer 24

Burke appealed to the tradition that sees the entire universe governed by divinely ordained natural law, and human beings as intended to be regulated by that law. This does not mean that the lawes are never changing, they are flexible. Yes politics should be in the hands of a landed gentry, but membership of the landed gentry should be open to talented parvenus like himself. liked Adam Smith. Still, even if nature is flexible, it is also the source of limits, and these are felt as much as understood.

! not anything on rights and liberties that he detested

not meritocratic though, just agknowledged talents

Question 25

prejudice

Answer 25

deeply ingrained, nonrational beliefs and traditions that help hold society together. Unlike the modern, negative connotation of prejudice as irrational bias, Burke saw it as a positive force—a set of inherited customs, values, and religious traditions that provide social stability and continuity. These beliefs function like a “civic religion,” guiding people’s behavior and ensuring order without needing constant rational justification.

Question 26

burke’s idea of revolution

Answer 26

a revolution was not merely an unconstitutional change of constitution but a protracted, violent, unpredictable transformation of social and political relationships embracing the whole of society.

! Burke a criticat Revoluția Franceză, argumentând că societatea nu este fondată pe un contract rațional pentru protejarea drepturilor naturale, ci pe o înțelegere între generații, pe tradiții și pe “prejudecăți” (în sens non-peiorativ). El considera că revoluția distruge structurile sociale existente, bazate pe experiența acumulată de-a lungul timpului, ducând la haos și violență.

Question 27

types of classical revolutions

Answer 27

1. the “good” revolution, the return to first principles; such a revolution was approved by Locke and Machiavelli in their own ways, and it was, one might say, the official version of the American Revolution. Burke could approve of 1688 as a revolution that had restored to England its ancient constitution in the face of usurpation.
2. a simple catastrophe, a turn of fortune’s wheel by which everything was turned upside down. Machiavelli drew on both images when he hoped that a prince with sufficient skill and daring might profit from chaos if fortuna was on his side and restore the Italian city-states to their Roman model.

Question 28

maistres’ idea of authority

Answer 28

Authority must be unchallengeable, and its power must be felt in the bowels rather than elaborated in the head, for man is a creature of passion, and if his passions are unleashed, destruction is the natural consequence.

Question 29

Care era concepția lui Thomas Paine despre guvernare și cum se raporta aceasta la ideea de drepturi naturale ale omului?

Answer 29

Paine considera că oamenii sunt în mod natural sociabili și capabili să-și gestioneze afacerile cooperativ dacă nu sunt înșelați de superstiții sau oprimați de conducători. El vedea guvernarea, chiar și în cea mai bună formă, ca un rău necesar, pledând pentru un stat minimalist care să protejeze comerțul, industria și să ajute pe cei nevoiași, bazându-se pe consimțământul guvernaților și pe drepturile naturale ale omului.

Question 30

Care a fost perspectiva lui Saint-Simon asupra schimbărilor sociale și ce rol a atribuit el elitei conducătoare într-o societate modernă?

Answer 30

Saint-Simon a avut o viziune asupra schimbărilor sociale bazată pe puterea ideilor (în special cele științifice) și pe importanța managementului rațional al resurselor productive ale societății, mai degrabă decât pe conflictul de clasă. El credea într-o societate organică, condusă de o ierarhie de autoritate bazată pe merit (inteligență științifică, abilități productive), înlocuind autoritatea ereditară sau militară.

Question 31

vituperative speech

Answer 31

a type of speech scilences another speech

Question 32

Condorcet Jury Theorem

Answer 32

if voters are better than chance on some yes/no question, then under majority rule (and the size of population gets larger) the group will be virtually infallible on that question

Question 33

what does this theory assume?

Answer 33

• Assumes very modest voter competence
• If they are independent
• Assumes sincerity
• If they don’t communicate
• Binary options

simmilar to Rousseau’s general will

Question 34

Principle of All Affected Interests:

Answer 34

anybody whose vital interests are significantly affected by some political decision/law ought to have an appropriate opportunity to influence that decision or outcome. (if woman pays taxes-> the right to free speech)

Given that the law generates duties (obedience) [and punishment], one has correlated or correlative rights (free speech)

Question 35

what does this prove?

Answer 35

It shows that mass democracy is compatible with good rule and so meets the epistemocrat/ expert rule head on

Question 36

grouchy

law has multiple functions

Answer 36

• deterence: act of discouraging or preventing someone from taking an action, usually through fear of consequences.
• moral education
• political education

Question 37

her main points

Answer 37

• Harsh laws incentivize criminal behavior
• Symbolic laws & laws that are hard to enforce undermine respect for the law
• By contrast, good law facilitates mutual respect & allows folk to mind their own business
• Law enforcement/prosecution should be in service of impartial rule of law, not rule of men.
• Law cannot be divorced from political-economic context

Question 38

burke’s authority

star quality authority

Answer 38

this allows authority to work on our habits and affections, in effect to govern us by seduction. (Queen Marie Antoinette)

Question 39

maistre’s authority

Answer 39

Maistre wants authority to work on our will, by breaking the will to resist. His God is an absolute ruler whose decrees are inscrutable and whose operations are terrifying. That is the essence of authority. France needed an absolute monarch supported by an infallible pope.

! Authority must be unchallengeable, and its power must be felt in the bowels rather than elaborated in the head, for man is a creature of passion, and if his passions are unleashed, destruction is the natural consequence. (Leviathan)

Question 40

paine on hereditary rulling

Answer 40

he treated the hereditary principle with contempt. Intelligent fathers
often produced stupid offspring; kings and aristocrats frequently died in early
middle age, leaving a country to be run by an adolescent, or a regent acting for
an infant.

! The only rational way to choose a ruling elite was some form of electoral process, not that by which the electors of the Holy Roman Empire produced their feeble superior, but that by which the American colonies had long chosen their representatives in their local legislatures.

Question 41

burke’s perscription

Answer 41

argues that long-standing traditions and institutions (including government) gain legitimacy simply by existing over time.

Question 42

kant

“hoarding treasure”

Answer 42

refers to a nation accumulating large reserves of wealth (gold, money, or other financial resources) as a means of preparing for war.

Question 43

On publicity

Answer 43

What we cannot do in the clear light of day, because it would not simply be a matter of embarrassment but would predictably raise others’ opposition since they would perceive it as harmful to their interests, we ought to refrain from doing. Ultimately, however, this negative doctrine of publicity is not sufficient, for it does not prevent the powerful from imposing themselves on the less powerful. Thus, Kant proceeds to a positive formulation of the doctrine of publicity, “All maxims that require publicity (in order not to fail of their end) agree with both politics and morality.” (386) This positive doctrine of publicity sets the context for all action in the personal, social, and political spheres. What we can achieve only by bringing it to light and making it a shared project for all conduces to “the universal public end (happiness).” This is the true task of politics.

Publicity is the context and goal of political life, to seek and preserve peace.

Question 44

steps to keeping peace

Answer 44

1. we must enter into treaties of peace not only in good faith but also with full intent, without reservations to be settled at a later time. Such reservations can only serve as matters for subsequent dispute and thus undermine the intent to establish peace.
2. nations are by their nature autonomous, not subject to acquisition by other nations. Nations arise logically as a function of a social contract among a people who are thereby subjects and citizens, giving the nation the status of a “moral person.”
3. nations must abolish standing armies, as their very existence signals other nations that one is prepared for and thus disposed to war. Their very existence creates the need of other nations to protect themselves.
4. nations are not to incur foreign debt, which must inevitably become a cause for strife between creditor and borrower with the potential to embroil them and other nations in conflict.
5. Nations must forgo interfering in each others’ internal affairs -> each nation’s status as a moral person.
6. even at war, nations are to conduct themselves in such wavs as not to undermine their credibility and the trust of those with whom they are hostilely engaged.

Question 45

what is a sovereign nation’s right

Answer 45

consists of being able to pursue its citizens legitimate ends without threatening other nations’ citizens or being threatened by them. This requires mutual commitment to peace.

Question 46

Consmopolitan right

Answer 46

each person’s right to pursue his or her destiny in the world. Although persons may by coincidence of birth be citizens of a given nation, “the right to the earth’s surface . . .belongs in common to the totality of men [and] makes commerce possible.” Cosmopolitan right underlies the very possibility of sustained human moral and material progress.

Inhospitability is contrary to natural right

Question 47

Reasons why nature drives humanity towards peace

Answer 47

1. Humanity’s state of nature requires that peoples enter into the social contract as nations. They create laws that they must obey in order to create justice and order.
2. The multiplicity of nations requires a federation of peace, they will not go in a world government or big monarchy cause that would be despotic and anarchic. Rather, nature maintains cultural, linguistic, and religious differences, which cause conflict but also push nations toward cooperation and balance over time.
3. Humanity’s need and desire to seek the goods of this world that gives rise to the “spirit of trade,” which is incompatible with war, motivates it to seek such peace as will guarantee cosmopolitan right.

! Nature uses human conflict, self-interest, and economic necessity to push nations toward peaceful relations, even when morality and reason fail. This does not mean peace is inevitable, but it is a goal that humanity is naturally driven toward. Though theoretical certainty about peace is impossible, from a practical standpoint, it becomes a duty for humanity to work toward it.

Question 48

when are delays to implementing rules regarding perpetual peace perminted?

Answer 48

Delays are only justified if immediate implementation would cause harm to the law’s purpose.

Ex: Law No. 2 (banning the forceful acquisition of states) → While it forbids future conquests, it does not require undoing past ones right away, since public opinion at the time accepted past conquests as lawful = could have bad long term consequences if done immediatley

Question 49

types of laws

Answer 49

Commanding Laws (leges praeceptivae) → Laws that require action.
Prohibitive Laws (leges prohibitivae) → Laws that forbid certain actions.
Permissive Laws (leges permissivae) → Laws that allow exceptions in specific cases.

! Kant acknowledges that permissive laws might seem contradictory at first because laws are usually seen as things that must be followed. However, permissive laws don’t contradict prohibitive ones; instead, they allow temporary exceptions based on historical or practical necessity.

Example: A land or territory might have been acquired unfairly in the past, but now it is treated as legitimate due to long-standing recognition.
However, this does not justify new acquisitions through the same unjust means.

Question 50

how should the civil constitution be?

Answer 50

republican: it accords with the principles of the freedom of the members of a society (as men), second, it accords with the principles of the dependence of everyone on a single, common [source off legislation (as subjects), and third, it accords with the law of equality of them all (as citizens).

Question 51

3 levels of a just constitution

Answer 51

Civil Rights (ius civitatis) → Rights of individuals within a nation.
International Rights (ius gentium) → Rights of nations in relation to each other.
World Citizenship Rights (ius cosmopoliticum) → The idea that all human beings are part of a universal community and must respect each other’s rights.

Question 52

is peace a natural state?

Answer 52

nah. The state of peace among men living in close proximity is not the
natural state ; instead, the natural state si a one of war, which does not just consist in open hostilities, but also in the constant and enduring threat of them.

! The state of peace must therefore be established, for the suspension of hostilities does not provide the security of peace, and unless this security si pledged by one neighbor to another (which can happen only in a state of lawfulness), the latter, from whom such security has been requested, can treat the former as an enemy.

Question 53

what is rightful (external) freedom?

Answer 53

not simply the ability to do as one wishes without causing harm—that’s an empty tautology. Instead, it means obeying only those external laws to which one has consented.

kinda like rousseau

Question 54

how is a republican constitution the only foundation to peace?

Answer 54

A republican constitution leads to perpetual peace because it requires citizens’ consent before going to war. Since they bear the costs—fighting, funding, and rebuilding—they will hesitate to engage in war unless absolutely necessary. In contrast, under a non-republican system, rulers treat war as a personal decision without direct consequences to themselves, making war more frequent and arbitrary.

also separation of powers would make sure that one leader does not make irrational chpices by himself, more checks and baalcnes in declaring war

Question 55

rightful equality

Answer 55

means that no citizen is bound by a law unless all are equally subject to it. These rights are fundamental to humanity and even apply to higher beings (if one believes in them). However, God alone is exempt from duty, as duty applies only to beings within a legal or moral system.

kinda like grouchy and condorcet

Question 56

how does Kant define a republican government?

Answer 56

one where the legestlative and executive power are separated. The opposite to despotic government.

Question 57

why doesn’t Kant like democracy?

Answer 57

! Kant distinguishes between the form of sovereignty (who holds power: monarchy, aristocracy, or democracy) and the form of government (how power is exercised: republican or despotic). A republican government separates legislative and executive powers, while despotism allows rulers to impose their will unchecked.

Despite common confusion, democracy, as direct rule by all, is inherently despotic, since it allows the majority to oppress individuals. A representative system—where rulers govern on behalf of the people—is essential for justice. The fewer the rulers, the more they can represent the people, making monarchy easier to reform into a just system than aristocracy or democracy. Without a representative system, any government, regardless of its constitution, remains despotic.

Question 58

right of nations

Answer 58

The right of nations should not be understood as a right to wage war, as that would mean determining justice through force rather than universal law. Instead, it must be seen as the right of nations to coexist under a legal framework that prevents conflict. Since nations refuse to fully submit to a global legal authority, the best alternative is an expanding federation that enforces peace while respecting each nation’s sovereignty. This federation serves as a practical substitute for a world republic, curbing war without erasing national identities.

Question 59

world republic

Answer 59

would be the ideal solution to achieving perpetual peace, as it would establish a global legal authority under which all nations operate, just as individuals submit to laws in a civil society. However, nations refuse to relinquish their sovereignty to such an authority, making this ideal impractical.

Question 60

negative surrogate

Answer 60

is a federation of nations that does not impose a single government but aims to prevent war by maintaining a balance of power and cooperation. This federation does not create a global state but functions as a substitute for it, reducing conflict while preserving national independence. Though imperfect, it is the most realistic way to approach lasting peace.

Question 61

hospitability

Answer 61

means the right of an aliennot to be treated as a nenemy upon
his arrival in another’s country. If it can be done without destroying him, he can be turned away; but, as long as he behaves peaceably he cannot be treated as an enemy.

Question 62

perpetual peace

Answer 62

harmony among men through their discord, even against their wills. Escape from the Hobbsian state of nature. final aim of society

Question 63

kant opinion on philosopher kings

Answer 63

Kant rejects the idea of philosopher-kings because he believes that power corrupts reason’s free judgment. Unlike Plato, who argued that philosophers should rule, Kant is skeptical that a ruler can remain truly rational and impartial when holding power.

However, Kant still sees philosophers as essential for guiding political affairs. He argues that while philosophers should not rule, they must be allowed to speak freely, as their ideas help societies progress toward enlightenment. He emphasizes that philosophers are not a threat (unlike political factions or revolutionaries) because their role is to seek truth and critique power, not seize it.

Question 64

different types of providence

Answer 64

• Grounding Providence (Providentia Conditrix): The initial act of creation, where the world’s natural order was set in motion.
• Ruling Providence (Providentia Gubernatrix): The universal laws of nature that sustain the world’s order.
• Directive Providence (Providentia Directrix): The way nature seems to work toward specific ends.
• Dispensation (Directio Extraordinaria): Events interpreted as divine intervention (miracles), which humans cannot truly recognize with certainty.

Question 65

critique of special divine intervention

Answer 65

Kant warns against presuming to recognize divine intent in specific events. He argues that:

• It is self-conceited to claim that an individual event (e.g., a personal success or disaster) is directly caused by divine will.
• Nature operates through mechanical laws, and assuming a particular event (e.g., a storm, a cure, or a war) is a sign of divine will is an overreach of human understanding.
• Teleological explanations (nature appearing purposeful) are valid, but they should not be confused with scholastic religious ideas that claim divine participation in every single event.

ex: If one says “God, along with the doctor, cured the illness,” it implies that God’s providence was incomplete and needed assistance from a human doctor. This contradicts the idea of an all-sufficient divine cause.
Instead, one should either credit healing to natural causes (the doctor and medicine) or trace it fully to divine will without mixing the two.
He dismisses the scholastic idea of concursus, which claims that God participates in every earthly event in a direct way.

Question 66

The Relationship Between Morality and Politics

Answer 66

Kant suggests that morality, in its true form, is practical and grounded in unconditional laws that guide human behavior. He argues that if someone accepts the concept of moral duty, it would be absurd to say that they cannot fulfill that duty (ought implies can). Therefore, there should not be a conflict between morality (the theoretical doctrine of right) and politics (the applied doctrine of right), as they are both ultimately seeking the same goal: the realization of justice and right.

! when conflict between politics and morality, politics is done wrong

Question 67

moral politicians

Answer 67

Moral politicians are those who seek to align their political actions with moral principles (such as justice, freedom, and rights). They strive to incorporate morality into politics, even if it involves personal sacrifice or challenging the status quo.

Question 68

types of principles

Answer 68

Material principles are those based on the end goal (e.g., perpetual peace) as the object of the will. These are often linked to empirical conditions and are concerned with achieving a specific outcome. (consequentialism bscly)

Formal principles refer to the moral law itself, such as the principle that one should “act so that you can will that your maxim should become a universal law,” which focuses on moral duty and universal principles rather than specific ends.(deontology bscly)

! perpetual peace can be established only by moral politicians who follow formal principles

Question 69

political moralists

Answer 69

Political moralists, in contrast, prioritize political pragmatism over moral principles. They justify political actions based on the imperfect nature of human beings or argue that morality is unattainable in practice, leading them to adopt political strategies that may violate moral rights in the name of expediency.

Question 70

prudence

Answer 70

generally refers to the ability to make decisions and take actions based on careful thought, sound judgment, and practical wisdom. It involves understanding the consequences of actions and balancing short-term and long-term goals, often with a focus on avoiding harm and ensuring stability.

BUT, although prudence is acceptable as a guiding tool in decision-making, it must never override the moral duty established by deontological principles. The moral law is primary, and prudence must serve the cause of morality, not replace it.

Question 71

federalismul statelor libere

Answer 71

O ligă de națiuni care își garantează reciproc securitatea și drepturile, dar își păstrează independența internă, servind ca o alternativă la un singur stat mondial.

Question 72

stare civila

Answer 72

starea de societate organizată sub lege, în care drepturile sunt protejate și conflictele sunt rezolvate în mod pașnic.

Question 73

drept cosmopolit

Answer 73

Dreptul fiecărui individ de a fi tratat cu ospitalitate atunci când vizitează țări străine, bazat pe ideea unei comunități globale de oameni.

Question 74

publicity

Answer 74

Transparența acțiunilor politice, asigurând că acestea pot fi supuse scrutinului public și criticii, promovând responsabilitatea și descurajând acțiunile imorale. Politicienii ar trebui să acționeze într-un mod care ar putea fi justificat în mod deschis și transparent. Dacă o politică nu poate fi apărată public, este probabil să fie nedreaptă sau să ascundă motive ascunse. Publicitatea, în viziunea lui Kant, este o garanție a justiției și un mijloc de a preveni abuzurile de putere.

Question 75

Categorical imperitive

Answer 75

Un principiu moral absolut care cere acțiunea doar conform acelei maxime prin care poți vrea totodată ca ea să devină lege universală. În contextul păcii, înseamnă acționând mereu într-un mod care promovează respectul pentru toți oamenii.

Question 76

why are liberal democracies necessary?

Answer 76

• less likley to go to war: cost-benefit analysis, they have a desire for profit (war for conquest but not open ended war with equal powers)

NB: if an electorate of a liberal democracy can push these costs onto others or a
sub-set of the population then Kant’s prediction will automatically fail.

– This is one reason Kant rejects war debts which push cost of war on
creditors and future generations

Question 77

passive civil disobedience

Answer 77

– to refuse public orders/law - is allowed based on inner conscience/ inner moral law. But not so far as to generate revolution or destroy the authority of the government.

Question 78

deontology

Answer 78

for something to be good, it has to be in accord with the norm, like duty. A way to think about ethics, where the intentions of the actor determine the rightness and wrongness of the act. If you do it for th eright motives= the act is gonna be good.

does not look at the human character like virtue theory (mencius, plato)

Question 79

spinoza’s source of freedom

Answer 79

reason

Question 80

phenomena

Answer 80

are in the realm of appearances governed by
causal, deterministic laws <- knowable to entities like us

Question 81

noumena

Answer 81

are in the realm of the intellect (realm freedom;) not in space & time
– Only knowable to a (godlike) entity who cognizes /intuits them
– Our agency is built on our faith that it’s possible we belong to noumenal world

Question 82

a good will to kant

Answer 82

is one that wills:
(i) to act in accord with the moral law
(ii) out of respect for that law rather than out of natural inclinations/desires.

also it is in the noumenal realm

Question 83

categorical imperitive

Answer 83

an unconditional command, like a moral law. like “treat others as you wish to be treated”

Question 84

what does it mean to be free for kant?

Answer 84

To act for the right reason is to be free. Only moral agents are free agents, despite the determinism of the phenomenal world.

Question 85

ought implies can

Answer 85

if there is an obligation/ moral duty to do something, then it must be possible to achieve it

! Perpetual peace only if its feasable and doable, only because it is rooted in our human nature. Because we have an inclination to peace. Even in the fall of the human nature, perpetual peace should be possible.

if the goal is feasable, means we have a duty to do it.

Question 86

ius in bello

conduct in war

Answer 86

• No assassinations, poison, incitement to treason, breach of
  surrender
• Argument assumes not just that victory is a goal, but also peace.

you do this because you want to avoid a war of extermination= the most awful version of the Hobbesian state of nature

so, this is a mechanism to avoid being in a permanent state of war (it signals to the other combatant, that while you are fighting you’re still interested to escape the state of nature)

rules in the state of war are a mechanism to avoid being in a ppermanent state of war

Question 87

institutional design strategy

Answer 87

• kant assumes that humans are rational devils, Each devil can see that laws and norms are collectively rational (escape from state of nature)
• but at the same time all wil try to free ride, since it is in their human nature
• kant says don’t try to rely on human nature and change the people. And also don’t rely on the virtue of the citizens
• Rather use incentives and mechanism design to get self-interested people to serve the public good (indirectly or directly)

Question 88

what is a Kantian republic?

Answer 88

1. Based on consent of citizens
2. Everybody is a citizen*
3. Separation of powers [Locke, Montesquieu &
   Madison]! [8:352]
   – Executive power divided from Legislative Power.
4. Requires representatives (legislative power)
5. Receptive to free trade

we would call this a liberal democracy

Question 89

blueprint for federation of states

Answer 89

• Envisions multiple (con-)federations of liberal democracies that has a state of peace with eachother
• Each (con-)federation is expected to grow in size over time

bscly start small

Question 90

marx on the state

Answer 90

• state is an effect of class conflict and becomes an arbiter in order to reduce hte cost of conflict
• the state can never be a neutral arbiter/ impartial, because every state becomes captured by the most powerful interest in society (rent-seeking)
• state is created on coercion and use of force (so it is both a way to control/ dicipline the population and keep conflict down)
• so bourgeois state= coercive entity to oppose class interests on the have-nots

Question 91

engels on the state

Answer 91

• as a pacifier of social conflict, a mechanism to get out the state of nature (hobbes)
• the state arises out of society and its aim is the production of social order, and it becomes independent of society
• in light of the modes of production and in the light of the conflict, the state will behave differently, it always evolves

Question 92

in Engels’ opinion what was the difference between the socialists before the manifesto and the communists?

Answer 92

By Socialists, in 1847, were understood, on the one hand, the adherents of the various Utopian systems: Owenites in England, Fourierists in France, both of them already reduced to the position of mere sects, and gradually dying out; on the other hand, the most multifarious social quacks, who, by all manners of tinkering, professed to redress, without any danger to capital and profit, all sorts of social grievances, in both cases men outside the working-class movement, and looking rather to the “educated” classes for support. Whatever portion of the working class had become convinced of the insufficiency of mere political revolutions, and had proclaimed the necessity of a total social change, that portion then called itself Communist.

in 1847 socialism was a middle-class movement, communism was a working-class movement

Question 93

bourgeois

Answer 93

the class of modern capitalists, owners of means of social production and employers of wage-labour

Question 94

proletariat

Answer 94

class of wage-labourers who, having no means of production of their own, are reduced to eelling their labour-power in order to live

Question 95

what is the difference between the modern bourgeois with the rest of historically dominant classes?

Answer 95

the bourgois constantly revolutionizes production thus creating uninterupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and agitation. Unusally the dominant class was trying to conserve th old modes of production. It is inherently because capitalism means constant evolution and development.

gave a cosmopolitan character to consumtion and production everywhere

Question 96

what was the foundation of the modern bourgeoise?

Answer 96

feudal society

Question 97

communism

Answer 97

public ownership and communal control of the (major) means of production with aim to abolish class society

you need to destroy the state

big difference with socialism as they don’t want to abolish class society

Question 98

Marx on morality/ Ideology

Answer 98

• all of these express the material and economic self-interest therby reinforce their power
• Each ruling class understands its own ‘morality’ as ‘eternal’ truth
• Each class understands that past rulling class understood their truth as eternal
• marxism is not moralizing; more like science (he is really moralising though)
• he says its not ideology

Question 99

republican principles in Marx

Answer 99

• Rejection of vulnerability to arbitrary (monarchs and capitalists) power;
• non-domination so conceived as project of emanicipation
• free development of each is the free development of all
• we become a partnership, association

Profesorul Schliesser afirmă că Marx și Engels ar putea adera la republicanismul modern, care (după cum se reamintește) este o teorie a non-dominației. Acesta implică respingerea vulnerabilității la puterea arbitrară.
Schliesser contrastează această formă de republicanism cu cea familiară din proiectul lui Rousseau de auto-legislație a legilor imparțiale pentru binele comun.
Non-dominația, astfel concepută, este un proiect de emancipare politică (fără a se preocupa de instituții republicane sau liberale). În locul vechii societăți burgheze, cu clasele și antagonismele sale de clasă, se va avea o asociație [eine Assoziation], în care libera dezvoltare a fiecăruia este condiția pentru libera dezvoltare a tuturor

Question 100

alienation

Answer 100

• Mass producing work is psychologically unpleasant
• Worker commodification leads to homogeneity (become less individual, become substituteable)
• “Differences of age and sex have no longer any distinctive social validity for the working class”
• not just psychologically harming us, we become enstranged with the individuals that we are
• the labourers are paid enough to reproduce a bare existence
• profit comes from the expense of the labourer

secular theodicy

Două aspecte ale alienării includ alienarea de produsul muncii (muncitorul creează un obiect care nu-i aparține și care chiar îl domină ca capital) și alienarea de actul muncii (munca devine o activitate forțată, un mijloc de supraviețuire, nu o expresie a creativității și a potențialului uman).

Question 101

Commodification

Answer 101

the subordination of both private and public realms to the logic of capitalism, where individuals are used as tools and not as ends

Question 102

creative destruction of global capitalism

Answer 102

force of constant change within not just the economy (“the instruments of production, and thereby the relations of production”), but also “whole relations of society.”

prior to capitalism, the ruling ideologies/classes entailed a conservatism with regard to tradition; one preserved what one was bequeathed.

Question 103

three features of capitalist self-understanding:

Answer 103

1. Entrenches “everlasting” uncertainty as a feature not a bug of the modern economy;
2. Desires are not given, but “wants” are shaped by the very process of permanent change. All desires become ‘adapative’!
3. Rent-seeking by the ruling classes.

liberals agree with this, but they disagree on the fact that liberals reject exploitation claim (unless caused by rent-seeking & monopoly)

Question 104

marxist democracy

Answer 104

• It’s not rule by lot/sortition; nor rule by representative government (that’s compatible with tactical use of “legislative recognition of particular interests of the workers, by taking advantage of the divisions among the bourgeoisie itself.”)
• his idea that all government is rule by minority onto the majority: representative democracy is bscly aristocracy (Aristotle)
• he wants the other way around under socialism: true majoritarianism= the rule for the many in their own interest

Question 105

irl bottom up accountability

levelers

Answer 105

The Levellers were a radical political movement during the English Civil War (1642–1651) that advocated for popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law, and religious tolerance. They opposed monarchy, aristocratic privilege, and unaccountable government, demanding greater political participation for common people, particularly in their manifesto, the Agreement of the People. Although they were ultimately suppressed by Oliver Cromwell, their ideas influenced later democratic movements.

Question 106

In ce sens ar putea fi interpretat republicanismul modern ca fiind compatibil cu gândirea lui Marx și Engels despre emanciparea politică?

Answer 106

Republicanismul modern, ca teorie a non-dominației, se concentrează pe respingerea vulnerabilității la puterea arbitrară. Aceasta ar putea fi compatibilă cu gândirea lui Marx și Engels despre emanciparea politică, în sensul eliberării proletariatului de sub dominația burgheziei și de exploatare, fără a se concentra neapărat pe instituțiile liberale sau republicane existente.

Question 107

what could be a mechanism of democracit accountability?

Answer 107

elect all civil servants, judges, magistraites by the people and they shouldbe responsible and revocable

Commune interpreted as prefigurative politics, that is, the modes of organization and social relationships that strive to reflect the future society being sought by the group

Question 108

marx on the paris commune accountability

Answer 108

• One might understand the Commune’s proposal as a mechanism to keep judges subservient to the true sovereign: the people.
• Objection: does democratic control secure impartiality or independence?

same thing rn in california

Question 109

some downside risks to bottom up accountability

Answer 109

• Risk of scapegoating minor officials, who lack resources and media pull.
• It may make it more difficult for office-holders to pursue long-term policy that will not be second-guessed or misconstrued;
• It may make government much more erratic and less predictable (and costly).
• Seems incompatible with a professional (meritocratic) bureaucracy.
• Only works if and only if the people are vigilant; and the whole point of delegating government in trust is to make such permanent vigilance unnecessary.

Question 110

why is the bourgeois unfit to rule?

Answer 110

this class in incompetent to assure an existence to its slave within his slavery, because it cannot help letting him sink into such a state, that it has to feed him instead of being fed by him.

Meaning:

• The bourgeoisie is unfit to rule because capitalism creates more and more workers who cannot sustain themselves.
• Instead of workers feeding the system, the system ends up having to support them through welfare, charity, or bailouts.
• This contradiction—where capitalism produces poverty instead of prosperity—is why Marx believed capitalism would collapse and be replaced by socialism.

Question 111

how is the communist party different from other working class parties?

Answer 111

1. In national struggles of proletarians from different countries, communists point out the common interest of th eentire proletariat, independently of the nationality
2. Communists do not fight for just one group of workers, one country, or temporary reforms but for the liberation of the proletariat as a whole, with the final aim of aboloshing capitalism and class society

Question 112

what is the aim of the communist party?

Answer 112

formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat

• Workers must first organize as a class to overthrow the bourgeoisie and take power.
• Once class divisions are abolished, the proletariat itself dissolves, and a classless, stateless society (communism) emerges.

Question 113

What does the theory of Communism say about property?

Answer 113

Communism does not abolish all property—only bourgeois private property, which is used for exploitation (e.g., factories, businesses, and land owned by capitalists). Personal property, like homes and belongings, remains. The goal is to replace private ownership of production with collective ownership by the workers to eliminate class exploitation.

big difference with stalinism

this is not only specific to communism as in the past feudal property (land owned by lords, worked by serfs) was abolished by the French Revolution and replaced with bourgeois property (capitalist ownership of factories, businesses, and land). now it is the time for bourgeois proprety to go away.

Question 114

counterarguments that marx has counterargumented

Answer 114

1. The fear of abolishing private proprety: Marx argues that for 90% of people, private property doesn’t really exist—only a small bourgeois elite actually owns significant property (factories, land, businesses). The wealth of the few exists only because the majority owns nothing and must sell their labor to survive. Therefore, when communists seek to abolish private property, they are only abolishing the system that keeps property concentrated in the hands of the few.

Example: A worker in a capitalist society does not own the factory they work in. The profits from their labor go to the owner, not to them. So in reality, most people already have no real private property—only capitalists do.

2. The bourgeoisie claim that communism will destroy “individuality” by taking away property: Marx rejects this claim, arguing that what they really mean by “individuality” is the existence of the bourgeois class itself. The communists do indeed want to end the class of capitalists—but that does not mean they want to strip away everyone’s belongings or personal property.

Example: Under capitalism, workers produce goods, but the profits go to the business owner (bourgeois). Communism does not prevent people from benefiting from the products of society—it just prevents one group from profiting at the expense of others.

3. The Myth That People Will Stop Working Without Capitalism: Marx ridicules this argument, pointing out that under capitalism, the wealthy do not work, yet they still acquire wealth. Meanwhile, those who actually work (the laborers) gain nothing except wages. If the logic of the bourgeoisie were true, then capitalism should have collapsed already—because the ruling class does not engage in productive labor, yet they continue to live in luxury.

Example: A billionaire does not physically work in the factories they own, yet they profit from them. If people stop working when they have no direct ownership of capital, why hasn’t capitalism already failed, since most workers own nothing?

Question 115

What does Marx mean by “The working men have no country”?

Answer 115

Marx means that national identity is meaningless for workers under capitalism because governments serve the bourgeoisie, not the working class. Workers in different countries share more in common with each other than with their own ruling class, as they are all exploited. Capitalism is global, so the fight against it must also be global—hence, “Workers of the world, unite!”

Question 116

Why does Marx dismiss religious arguments against communism?

Answer 116

Marx sees religion as a product of material conditions, not an independent truth. He argues that religion serves the ruling class by justifying oppression and keeping workers passive (“opium of the people”). Religious arguments fail to address economic reality and have always adapted to different systems , including feudalism (the Church justified kings and lords ruling over peasants.) and capitalism (many religious groups now support private property and wealth accumulation). Since religion will also adapt to communism, its arguments against it are not worth considering.

Question 117

philistine

Answer 117

is someone who is narrow-minded, materialistic, and indifferent to culture, art, or intellectual pursuits. Marx often uses “philistine” to describe bourgeois intellectuals who reject revolutionary ideas. These people pretend to be educated but are actually shallow and uninterested in real social change. German “True” Socialists, for example, were philistines in Marx’s eyes because they turned socialism into an empty academic idea instead of a revolutionary force.

Question 118

why is capitalism always developing?

Answer 118

Revoluționarea constantă a producției este esențială pentru capitalism, deoarece burghezia nu poate exista fără a schimba continuu instrumentele de producție, relațiile de producție și, implicit, toate relațiile sociale. Aceasta creează o stare de nesiguranță și agitație perpetuă, distrugând vechile structuri și valori.

Question 119

De ce consideră Engels că revoluția comunistă va avea loc simultan în mai multe țări civilizate și nu doar într-una singură?

Answer 119

Engels argumentează că, datorită creării pieței mondiale și interdependenței dintre națiuni prin dezvoltarea industriei la scară largă, revoluția comunistă nu poate fi un eveniment izolat într-o singură țară. Clasele (burghezia și proletariatul) și lupta dintre ele au devenit forțe decisive în toate țările civilizate, făcând ca revoluția să fie un proces universal.

Question 120

betham thingy

felicific calculus

Answer 120

set out the way to estimate the amount of pleasure or pain to be expected from a given action or course of action.

cost-benefit analysis?

Question 121

What was James Mill’s view on government and democracy?

Answer 121

Like Bentham, James Mill believed people naturally pursue their own interests, making government necessary to maintain order. However, those in power can also abuse it. The key challenge is aligning the interests of the public with the ones who are in power. Neither monarchy nor aristocracy achieves this, so the solution is representative democracy, where the public can remove governments that fail to serve their interests.

! democracy makes us be one common thing, we believe what everybody else believes. We have confirmation bias.

No government by a democracy or a numerous aristocracy, either in its political acts or in the opinions, qualities, and tone of mind which it fosters, ever did or could rise above mediocrity, except in so far as the sovereign

Question 122

Mill on human nature

Answer 122

Mill, influenced by both thinkers, shared Rousseau’s skepticism about a fixed human nature but rejected Hegel’s comfort with social conformity. He argued that what people often call “human nature” is actually custom—a second nature that results from historical and social conditioning. For Mill, society plays an essential role in shaping individuals, but he worried that it often suppressed individuality too much. He championed dissent and nonconformity, arguing that true human development required individuals to challenge norms rather than blindly accept them. Unlike Hegel, who saw socialization as mostly beneficial, Mill feared that society could stifle originality and intellectual progress.

Question 123

Efective altruism

Answer 123

you use your resources to do the most good you can (donate money to the biggest more effective foundations)

Question 124

How does utilitarianism relate to politics and administration?

Answer 124

Utilitarianism often views governance as benevolent administration, aiming for the greatest happiness rather than fostering active political participation. It prioritizes accountability to align rulers’ interests with the governed but says little about citizen engagement in political life.

Question 125

Why was Bentham a libertarian, and how did he view freedom?

Answer 125

Bentham believed most people know their own interests and opposed oppression, but he saw freedom as instrumental to happiness, not inherently valuable. He supported laws that maximized happiness and did not understand objections to institutions like the Panopticon.

Question 126

What is the ambiguity in utilitarian individualism?

Answer 126

Utilitarianism focuses on individual happiness, but its goal is to maximize total happiness, not necessarily protect individuals as unique persons. This is like how GDP represents national income—it concerns individuals’ economic activity but not their personal well-being or autonomy.

Question 127

What was the main argument of Mill’s A System of Logic?

Answer 127

Mill argued that all human knowledge originates from experience and that we do not need an innate faculty or “intuition” to perceive ethical, mathematical, or physical truths. He saw intuitionism as a flaw reinforced by conservatism which prevents self-criticism, and believed a better philosophy should encourage critical thinking.

Question 128

How does Mill distinguish between positive and critical morality?

Answer 128

Positive morality refers to the ethical rules a society actually follows (Hegel’s Sittlichkeit), while critical morality asks what rules people should follow. Mill’s utilitarianism argues that true critical morality consists of the rules that would maximize human well-being if universally followed.

Question 129

What were the two main positive aims of Mill in A System of Logic?

Answer 129

1. Establishing social sciences as reliable as physical sciences – Mill believed that rational politics required a scientific understanding of the social world, but he rejected using economics as a model for political science.
2. Developing a historically sensitive political sociology – He argued that political success depended on the character of the population, coining the term ethology to describe the study of national character. He supported representative democracy over pure democracy, believing modern industrial nations required elected governance rather than direct self-rule.

Question 130

What are the three dimensions of moral assessment according to Mill?

Answer 130

Imprudence – Actions that harm oneself (e.g., drinking too much and getting a hangover).
Immorality – Actions that harm others, violating moral duty (e.g., drinking too much and driving dangerously).
Aesthetic judgment – Actions that are mean or base rather than wicked (e.g., grudgingly repaying a debt).

Question 131

What is Mill’s view on duties and morality?

Answer 131

Mill argues that duties are owed only to other people, as morality concerns our relations with others—preventing harm and encouraging assistance. However, he believed that utilitarianism must also address personal conduct beyond strict moral duty.

! Morality is the set of rules that it would maximize human welfare to establish and enforce by psychologically coercive measures.

Question 132

Why did Mill criticize Bentham regarding self-regarding conduct?

Answer 132

Bentham ignored personal excellence, believing it was improper to judge others’ self-regarding actions. Mill argued that while people shouldn’t be forced to improve themselves, society should still encourage personal growth and excellence.

Question 133

Mill’s Idea of Justice vs. Ancient Philosophers

Answer 133

Ancient View (Plato & Aristotle): Justice is a key virtue, directly tied to moral education and the good of the state.
Mill’s View: Justice is a special case of utility, primarily promoting security, which is necessary for happiness.
Key Difference: Ancient thinkers saw justice as an inherent moral good, while Mill saw it as a means to an end (happiness & stability).
Political Implication: Mill worried that societies might over-discipline individuals, suppressing initiative and self-confidence.

Question 134

What was Mill’s main concern in On Liberty?

Answer 134

Mill feared that democracy could lead to a new kind of oppression—not by rulers, but by the majority’s public opinion (especially the middle-class). This “tyranny of the majority” would suppress individuality and discourage free thought.

! People internalize public opinion through socialization, making them hesitant to express different views. Unlike ancient democracies, where competition encouraged diversity, modern democracies encourage sameness due to similar economic and social conditions.

He advocated for a “pluralist liberalism” where no opinion is suppressed, ensuring that people remain free to think, feel, and act as individuals.

Question 135

what is Mill’s idea of the true goal of modern humanity?

Answer 135

Autonomous self-fulfillment is the true goal of modern humanity; we seek, when fully self-conscious and in command of our own lives, to create a kind of harmony in our lives, to live life from the inside, as opposed to taking our standards from other persons.

Question 136

How did Mill’s view of happiness differ from Bentham’s?

Answer 136

Bentham saw happiness as maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain. Mill, influenced by Romantic thinkers, believed true happiness came from autonomous self-fulfillment—living according to one’s own values rather than conforming to societal expectations.

Question 137

What is Mill’s principle of “antipaternalism”?

Answer 137

Antipaternalism is the idea that society should only interfere with individuals to prevent harm to others, not to protect people from themselves. Society may encourage or criticize behavior, but it should not coerce individuals unless their actions threaten others.

Question 138

What is the primary purpose of Mill’s harm principle?

Answer 138

The harm principle sets a boundary beyond which society cannot interfere with individual freedom unless an action directly harms others.

❌ Negative Aspect:
- Society may only coerce individuals to prevent harm to others.
- Guarantees absolute freedom of thought and almost absolute freedom of speech.
- Restrictions apply to incitement to violence (e.g., riling up a mob) and fraud (e.g., misleading contracts).

✅ Positive Aspect:
- Even if society cannot force moral behavior, it can criticize and discourage bad behavior.
- Social disapproval (e.g., exclusion, criticism) is a natural consequence, not coercion.
- Encourages personal responsibility without violating individual liberty.

“That the only purpose for which power
can be rightfully exercised over any
member of a civilised community, against
his will, is to prevent harm to others.
His own good, either physical or moral,
is not a sufficient warrant

Question 139

Mill’s freedom

Answer 139

Mill’s idea of freedom is both a negative protection from coercion and a positive force for self-development and progress. He sees freedom as essential for intellectual debate, moral growth, and social improvement. However, he acknowledges that complete freedom is not possible—restrictions are justified only to prevent harm to others, but not to enforce morality, custom, or tradition.

Question 140

Mill’s Stance on Representative Government

Answer 140

Mill believed that representative government was the best form of governance, but it needed to be structured carefully to ensure progress and prevent the dangers of majoritarian tyranny. He rejected simple majority rule, arguing that democracy should maintain the “antagonism of opinions” to prevent a single group from having unchecked power.

For Mill, accountability and competence were crucial in a functioning government. He insisted that citizens should vote for leaders better than themselves, not just people who shared their background or immediate interests. Additionally, he supported electoral reforms like proportional representation to make elections fairer and to prevent the domination of minority groups by the majority.

While Mill valued self-government, he also recognized that modern society required skilled administrators. Unlike direct democracy in ancient Athens, large nations could not function with every citizen actively governing. Instead, modern governance required elected officials who were accountable to the public but also knowledgeable and capable.

Question 141

antimoralism

Answer 141

Just because someone’s beliefs, values, or religious convictions are challenged does not mean they have been harmed. Simply being offended or having one’s worldview contradicted is not a justification for restricting free speech or personal liberty. This idea is known as antimoralism, which means that society cannot restrict behavior just because it is considered immoral. Instead, Mill argues that we should determine morality based on whether an action actually harms others. In other words, immorality is defined by its harmful consequences—not the other way around.

but society can intervene when harm is incontrovertible, such as breaking a contract (e.g., marriage) or failing to perform duties crucial for social stability (e.g., testifying in court).

Question 142

Mill’s Three Progressive Reforms

Answer 142

1. One of Mill’s most forward-thinking ideas was his advocacy for female suffrage. At a time when voting rights were restricted to property-owning men, he argued that denying women the vote was as irrational as denying it to redheaded men. His proposal to enfranchise women in the 1867 Reform Bill received 72 votes in Parliament—an unexpectedly high number for the time.
2. Mill also proposed plural voting, which challenged the democratic ideal of “one person, one vote.” He suggested that while everyone should have at least one vote, better-educated individuals should receive multiple votes. He believed that elections should reflect intelligence and informed decision-making rather than just the sheer number of voters. Although this idea was widely mocked as a “fancy franchise,” modern political scientists recognize that education still plays a key role in shaping political influence.
3. His third major reform was his support for proportional representation, which aimed to prevent governments from being elected by a minority of the population. He supported the transferable vote system, where voters could rank candidates in order of preference to ensure that more voices were represented. While critics argued that this system would require multi-member districts, Mill believed it was necessary to create a truly fair and representative democracy.

Question 143

John Locke vs Mill on toleration

Answer 143

Locke: toleration for everybody except atheists and catholics
Mill: this way is opressive, their main cncern was not cencorship but social conformity; we need different opinions because we suffer from conformation bias;

Question 144

utilitarianism

Answer 144

• A commitment to impartiality & agentneutrality
• A tradition of thought in ethics, economics, and political philosophy (Effective altruism)
• A species of consequentialism. But unlike all consequentialists, utilitarians aim to maximize some quantity
• Act-utilitarianism= provides a rule for how to make decisions for for individual behavior
• Rule- utilitarianism= helps design norms/ rules for colective action

Question 145

why should we listen to those we diagree with

Answer 145

1. They might turn out to be right: “the opinion may possibly be true”
2. Even if our opinion is correct, we will hold it more rationally and securely as a result of being challenged. “He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that.”
3. Opposing views may each have some truth, which should be combined. “Conflicting doctrines share the truth between them”

Question 146

what is the only way, according to Mill of aquiring knowledge?

Answer 146

discussion, hearing what can be said about it by persons of every variety of opinion, and studying all modes in which it can be looked at by every character of mind.

Question 147

Mill

who has the right to belive that his judgement is better than another persons’?

Answer 147

knowing that he has sought for objections and difficulties, instead of avoiding them, and has shut out no light which can be thrown upon the subject from any quarter—he has a right to think his judgment better than that of any person, or any multitude, who have not gone through a similar process.

Question 148

The Trial of Socrates

Answer 148

Socrates, one of history’s greatest philosophers, was sentenced to death by his fellow Athenians for impiety (denying state-recognized gods) and corrupting the youth. Despite being the teacher of Plato and the intellectual ancestor of Aristotle, he was convicted and executed. Mill highlights this as a warning against suppressing dissenting voices, emphasizing that even the most virtuous and wise individuals can fall victim to unjust public opinion and legal authority.

Question 149

The Tragic Error of Marcus Aurelius

Answer 149

Marcus Aurelius, one of the most virtuous and enlightened rulers in history, persecuted Christianity despite embodying many of its moral ideals. He saw society as fragile and believed that the traditional religious beliefs held it together. Fearing that Christianity would dissolve these social bonds, he felt duty-bound to suppress it, failing to see its future positive impact. Mill highlights this as one of history’s great tragedies, warning against the assumption of infallibility in suppressing dissenting opinions, as even the wisest leaders can make grave mistakes.

Question 150

Mill on customs

absolute chad ngl bro is spitting bars

Answer 150

The traditions and customs of other people are, to a certain extent, evidence of what their experience has taught them; presumptive evidence, and as such, have a claim to his deference: but, in the first place, their experience may be too narrow; or they may not have interpreted it rightly. Secondly, their interpretation of experience may be correct, but unsuitable to him. Customs are made for customary circumstances, and customary characters: and his circumstances or his character may be uncustomary. Thirdly, though the customs be both good as customs, and suitable to him, yet to conform to custom, which are the distinctive endowment of a human being. The human faculties of perception, judgment, discriminative feeling, mental activity, and even moral preference, are exercised only in making a choice. He who does anything because it is the custom, makes no choice. He gains no practice either in discerning or in desiring what is best. The mental and moral, like the muscular powers, are improved only by being used. The faculties are called into no exercise by doing a thing merely because others do it, no more than by believing a thing only because others believe it. If the grounds of an opinion are not conclusive to the person’s own reason, his reason cannot be strengthened, but is likely to be weakened by his adopting it: and if the inducements to an act are not such as are consentaneous to his own feelings and character (where affection, or the rights of others, are not concerned), it is so much done towards rendering his feelings and character inert and torpid, instead of active and energetic.

Question 151

Mill vs Bentham on the role of the state

Answer 151

Jeremy Bentham:
Bentham, as the founder of utilitarianism, believed that the government’s role should be to maximize overall happiness, measured in terms of pleasure and pain. He advocated for a strong, interventionist government that would implement policies based on the “greatest happiness principle.” Bentham supported social and legal reforms, including public education, welfare programs, and a rational legal system, all designed to increase the well-being of the majority. He also believed in democratic government but was more focused on efficiency and utility rather than individual liberty.

John Stuart Mill:
Mill, while also a utilitarian, placed a much greater emphasis on individual liberty and limited government intervention. He believed that government should only interfere in people’s lives to prevent harm to others (the “harm principle”). Unlike Bentham, he argued that individual freedom and diversity of thought were essential for human progress. Mill supported representative democracy but warned against the “tyranny of the majority,” where public opinion could suppress individuality. He believed in some government intervention, particularly in education and economic fairness, but was wary of excessive state control over people’s lives.

Question 152

Manichaeism

Answer 152

Fanon uses the concept of Manichaeism to describe the stark, absolute divisions created by colonialism. In Manichaean thought, the world is divided into two opposing forces—good (spirit) and evil (matter). Colonialism, according to Fanon, imposes a similar dualism: the settler represents civilization, reason, and goodness, while the native is cast as primitive, irrational, and evil. This colonial ideology justifies oppression by portraying the native as a threat to order and values.

During decolonization, this division persists, as the native continues to see the settler as the ultimate enemy who must be destroyed. Violence becomes the means of breaking free from oppression. However, Fanon warns that after decolonization, this Manichean mindset must be abandoned. If the post-colonial society remains trapped in the same rigid binary of enemies and oppressors, true liberation will not be achieved. The challenge is to move beyond colonial ideology, not just reverse its power structure.

duality, based on science

Question 153

4 reason for decolonial violence

Answer 153

1. to change the material reality in the colony, that is to produce decolonisation
2. to create a political education among the colonized, violence is a mechanism for education
3. violence itself creates a material rupture, and helps create a new man/ woman and bring them to their historical reality. to create a break with the past. Including ossification of pre-colonized traditions
4. to attack the colonial system at level of ideology. it humanises the colonized in their own eyes, not just victims of history but also agents of history. but also humanizes the colonized in the eyes of the settlers, as smbdy who is able to strategize and fight back

the violence has always be attention on the bigger political aims, like the necessity of taking prisoners

Question 154

Fanon class’ analysis of the colony

Answer 154

The settler
– In the city (complacent and rich)
– In the countryside (isolated and vulnerable)
The colonized
– Urban intelligentsia that wishes to benefit more from the colony and mediates between imperial homeland and colony; but potentially leaders of the revolution (as some move to the countryside)
– Urban worker; it’s complicated. His needs are supplied by the colonial system; and naturally revolutionary (because exploited, yet also that upon which the colonizer depends).
– Lumpenproletariat: not useful to the settler, and the violent shock-troops of the revolution!
– Urban peasants the backbone of any revolution.

Question 155

De ce consideră Fanon că țărănimea este singura clasă cu adevărat revoluționară în contextul colonial?

Answer 155

Fanon consideră că țărănimea este singura clasă cu adevărat revoluționară deoarece nu are nimic de pierdut și totul de câștigat din decolonizare. Spre deosebire de elitele urbane care pot beneficia de anumite privilegii în sistemul colonial, țăranii exploatați înțeleg că doar violența poate aduce o schimbare radicală.

Question 156

Cum încearcă burghezia colonialistă să contracareze mișcările de eliberare națională?

Answer 156

Burghezia colonialistă, confruntată cu imposibilitatea de a-și menține dominația, recurge la strategii de “non-violență” și compromis pentru a-și proteja interesele. Aceasta încearcă să negocieze cu elitele naționaliste pentru a evita o răsturnare violentă a sistemului și pentru a menține o anumită influență post-colonială.

Question 157

Ce rol joacă violența în procesul de eliberare a colonizatului, din perspectiva lui Fanon?

Answer 157

Violența este văzută de Fanon ca un element necesar și cathartic în procesul de eliberare a colonizatului. Prin violență, colonizatul își afirmă umanitatea, se eliberează de complexul de inferioritate impus de colonizator și își recâștigă demnitatea. Aceasta reprezintă singurul limbaj pe care colonizatorul îl înțelege cu adevărat.

Question 158

Cum influențează contextul internațional (Războiul Rece) dinamica decolonizării?

Answer 158

Marile puteri își exprimă sprijinul pentru autodeterminarea popoarelor pentru a-și extinde influența, iar mișcările de eliberare pot beneficia de suport politic și diplomatic, creând o presiune suplimentară asupra regimurilor coloniale.

Question 159

De ce afirmă Fanon că neutralismul țărilor recent independente nu le permite să primească ajutorul necesar?

Answer 159

Fanon argumentează că neutralismul, deși permite țărilor recent independente să primească ajutor economic de la ambele blocuri, nu duce la o asistență semnificativă. Resursele masive sunt direcționate spre cercetarea militară în contextul Războiului Rece, în detrimentul dezvoltării țărilor subdezvoltate.

france building neuclear stations instead of investing in wellbeing

Question 160

what is militarism a result of?

Answer 160

militarism in both its forms – as war and as armed peace – is a legitimate child, a logical result of capitalism, which can only be overcome with the destruction of capitalism, and that hence whoever honestly desires world peace and liberation from the tremendous burden of armaments must also desire Socialism.

! the international antagonisms of the capitalist states are but the complement of class antagonisms, and the world political anarchy but the reverse side of the anarchic system of production of capitalism.

Question 161

what is an utopian ideal in rosa’s opinion?

Answer 161

The Utopianism of the standpoint which expects an era of peace and retrenchment of militarism in the present social order is plainly revealed in the fact that it is having recourse to project making.

Question 162

Rosa Luxemburg’s Critique of the European Union Idea

Answer 162

🔹 Historical and Economic Basis of States
Modern states are not artificial constructs but historical products of economic development. The idea of a European Federation lacks a solid economic foundation and contradicts capitalist realities.

🔹 Economic Contradictions within Europe
Capitalist competition and conflicts between European states make economic unity impossible. Additionally, Europe is deeply dependent on non-European markets for raw materials, goods, and consumers, making isolation unrealistic.

🔹 Global Shift in Political and Economic Power
Europe is no longer the central arena for global political and economic conflicts. International tensions now play out on a worldwide scale, not just within Europe.

🔹 Imperialist and Reactionary Roots of European Unity
Historically, the idea of a united Europe has been used by bourgeois politicians to promote imperialist agendas, often against non-European nations, reinforcing global inequalities.

🔹 Capitalist European Unity Leads to Global Conflicts
A European federation under capitalism would not bring peace but intensify global economic and political conflicts, such as trade wars with the U.S. and colonial struggles in other regions.

the only way to have a cosmopolitan peace in a european eunion is socialist revolution= no capitalism

Question 163

Imperialism

Answer 163

is a policy to expand control of foreign teritory and/ or peoples & resources

Question 164

colonialism

Answer 164

sendin of population to foreign lands in order to control territory and/ or people & resources

Question 165

setler colonialism

Answer 165

sending of population to foreign lands in order to conrol territory / peoples’ resources by expelling/ killing of indigineous peoples

Question 166

difference bewteen hobson & lenin/ luxembourg on imperialism

Answer 166

h: capitalism gone wrong= imperialism
l&l: in the nature of capitalism to be imperialistic

Luxemburg & Lenin: monopoly capitalism is natural outgrowth of capitalist
development.
Hobson (social Liberal): monopoly capitalism is effect of rent-seeking by elites so we need antitrust regulation and more democracy

-

For Hobson/Lenin: Financial/oligarchic interests engineer foreign conflicts to
claim territory with minerals. Monopoly capitalism is the source of imperialism because of the underconsumption at home which makes bigger profits for fighting colonial wars abroad.
For Luxemburg: spending on militarism comes first because it stimulates local
economy (and that entrenches coalition of monopoly capitalists with militarism)

Question 167

kautsky

Answer 167

• wants to create a european united project
• very kantian, but with welfare state and colonies
• kautsky thinks there are 3 routes to european peace:
  (i) a tax-revolt by citizens against the costs of armaments;
  (ii) war so destructive that socialist-cosmopolitan revolution
  would follow;
  (iii) a peace-time worker’s revolution in a state that would be
  copied by others, and usher in cosmopolitan socialist
  federation

Question 168

Fanon on settler colonialism

Answer 168

• system of violence
• incapable of generating any legitimacy
• it is a one sided relationship, the colony exists for enrichement and locals are basically exploited and dominated
• colonialism is a zero sum system (machiean)
• it is incapable of living up to its own civilational mission
• it cannot hide its fundamental violence & inequality
• settler creates the category of a racialized ‘native’ who gets othered and dehumanized (like an animal or evil), treated as weak or inferior

Question 169

Fanon innovations in Marxism

Answer 169

• the state should not be abolished after decolonisation
• he was worried though that the decolonized state us opportunity to provide an alternative to capitalist exploitation
• morality is not just smth for the bourgeois elite: he thinks that reparations are owed
• the peasentry is the main revolutionary class

Question 170

luxembrugs criticism of vanguarism

Answer 170

Lenin:

1. The blind subordination, in the smallest detail, of all party organs to the party
   center which alone thinks, guides, and decides for all.
2. The rigorous separation of the organized nucleus of revolutionaries from its
   social-revolutionary surroundings…”

Luxembourgs alternative:

1. The existence of a large contingent of workers educated in the class struggle.
2. The possibility for the workers to develop their own political activity through
   direct influence on public life, in a party press, and public congresses, etc.…
   * Favored general strikes (also as collective learning) and bottom up revolutions.
   * Luxemburg was wrong to claim that Lenin’s top-down centralization would
   impede the revolution, but she was right to predict that it would empower “an
   intellectual elite hungry” which “will immobilize the movement and turn it into
   an automaton manipulated by a Central Committee.”

Fanon:
- Agrees that vanguardism/centralization leads to new despotism
- Accepts the significance of decentralization “The centralization of all activity in the city ought to be avoided…The party should be decentralized in the extreme.” (185)
During decolonialization it makes it impossible for the colonizer to wipe out revolution. After decolonization it is key to future natural developments
- Not the strike (and the town), but revolutionary violence -by lumpenproletariat on margins and the peasants in the countryside – is education in self-government

because with vanguardism you end up with a dictatorship

Question 171

Fanon

what is truth in the context of colonialism?

Answer 171

Truth is that which hurries on the break-up of the colonialist regime; it is that which promotes the emergence of the nation; it is all that protects the natives, and ruins the foreigners. In this colonialist context there is no truthful behavior: and the good is quite simply that which is evil for “them.”

Question 172

what is the native’s final goal?

Answer 172

What they demand is not the settler’s position of status, but the settler’s place. The immense majority of natives want the settler’s farm. For them, there is no question of entering into competition with the settler. They want to take his place.