IPOL final Flashcards
Democratic elections
- Competitive
- Free and fair
- Inclusive instead of exclusive
- Periodic
Functions of democratic elections
§ Recruiting politicians
§ Making governments
§ Providing representation
§ Influencing policy
§ Educating voters
§ Building legitimacy
§ Strengthening elites
Pluralist/Majority Electoral Systems
First-past-the-post: This system elects the candidate with the most votes in a single round. Originating in the UK, it promotes stable majority governments but can marginalize smaller parties.
Two-round: Voters may have a second chance if no candidate secures a majority in the first round, increasing voter choice but adding election costs. It’s used in French presidential elections.
Alternative vote: Voters rank candidates by preference. Developed in Australia, it allows greater expression of voter preferences but can be complex to count.
Mixed Electoral Systems
Parallel systems: Combines proportional and majoritarian systems with separate seats, balancing proportional representation with geographic representation. Used in Japan and Russia.
Mixed-member-proportional: Blends proportionality with direct representatives in a single system, as seen in Germany, providing fairer representation for smaller parties.
PR Electoral Systems
List: Parties gain seats proportionate to votes, using closed or open lists. Common in Europe, it boosts party diversity but can lead to fragmented legislatures.
Single transferable vote (STV): Voters rank candidates, with a system of redistribution ensuring proportionality. Used in Ireland, it provides personalized but complex representation.
Advantages and Disadvantages: Majority vs. Proportional Representation Systems
Majority Systems
Advantages: Tend to create stable, single-party governments; simpler to understand and count.
Disadvantages: Can marginalize smaller parties and lead to “wasted votes,” reducing representation diversity.
Proportional Representation Systems
Advantages: Reflects a wider range of political opinions, allowing smaller parties fairer representation.
Disadvantages: Often results in coalition governments, which can be less stable and lead to complex decision-making processes.
Psychological Model
Voters support a political party consistently, often from habit or socialization. Originating from American political science, it highlights party loyalty but can overlook individual candidate qualities.
Sociological Model
Suggests voting is influenced by social group affiliations, like class or religion, emphasizing identity politics. Pioneered in the mid-20th century, it captures demographic voting trends but may oversimplify individual choice.
The Rational-Choice (Economic) Model
Voters make choices based on self-interest and policy preferences. Emerging from economic theory, it rationalizes voter behavior but may ignore emotional factors.
The Dominant-Ideological Model
Claims media and dominant cultural narratives shape voter choice, often aligning with elite interests. Relevant in critiques of mass media influence, it suggests voters are swayed by societal power structures.
Strategic voting
Occurs when individuals vote not for their favourite candidate but for one more likely to win or to prevent an undesired outcome. Originating from game theory, it highlights the tactical dimension of voting but can reduce genuine choice expression
Trustee Model of Representation
In this model, elected officials act according to their own judgment and expertise rather than following constituents’ specific wishes. The concept dates back to British philosopher Edmund Burke, who argued representatives should prioritize national interest. It emphasizes political autonomy but can lead to disconnects between representatives and voters, impacting trust in democratic systems.
Delegate Model of Representation
Representatives act strictly according to the wishes of their constituents, prioritizing their demands above personal views. Stemming from democratic theories emphasizing direct representation, it promotes voter accountability. This model strengthens voter control over representatives but may limit politicians’ flexibility to act on complex issues.
Mandate Model of Representation
Representatives are seen as carrying out the agenda on which they campaigned, effectively delivering a “mandate” given by voters. Rooted in 19th-century electoral theory, it aligns closely with the concept of party platforms and manifestos. It validates party-based promises, helping voters hold parties accountable, but may ignore shifts in public opinion post-election.
Partisan Dealignment
This term describes a trend where voters become less loyal to political parties, leading to weaker party affiliation. Identified in the late 20th century in Western democracies, it reflects rising voter independence. It has led to increased electoral volatility, making elections more unpredictable and influencing party strategy.
Resemblance Model of Representation
This model suggests that representatives should reflect the demographics and experiences of the population they represent. Emerging from theories on identity politics, it aims for a more inclusive form of representation. It can improve representation for marginalized groups, though critics argue it may overemphasize identity over expertise.
Class Dealignment
This concept indicates the weakening link between social class and party preference, with voters less likely to vote according to class interests. Observed as societies became more socially mobile, especially since the 1970s, as economic and social changes blurred class distinctions. Class dealignment impacts traditional party bases, forcing parties to appeal to broader or more diverse groups.
A constituency
a body of voters in a specific area who elect representatives to a legislative body. Rooted in representative democracy, it allows localized representation in government. Constituencies are crucial for democratic engagement, ensuring that elected officials are accountable to specific groups of people.
quasi-legal
actions or decisions that are not strictly legal but are made or enforced by an entity with some legal authority or influence
A catch-all party strategy
refers to a political approach where a party seeks to appeal to a broad range of voters across different social groups, ideologies, and interests rather than focusing on a specific constituency. This strategy emerged in the mid-20th century, notably in Western democracies, as parties aimed to expand their voter base beyond traditional strongholds by moderating their policies and adopting more centrist positions. The catch-all strategy can increase a party’s electoral chances by broadening its appeal, but it may dilute its ideological coherence and alienate core supporters.
The Iron Law of Oligarchy
is a political theory proposed by sociologist Robert Michels, which suggests that all organizations, regardless of how democratic they may initially appear, eventually develop oligarchic structures where power becomes concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Michels developed this idea in the early 20th century after observing political parties and trade unions, arguing that as organizations grow in size and complexity, leadership becomes necessary and inevitably leads to a concentration of power. This law highlights the tension between democratic ideals and the realities of organizational management, emphasizing that true democracy may be unachievable in large, structured organizations.
Factionalism
refers to the division of a group or political organization into smaller, often competing subgroups or factions, each with its own interests, goals, or beliefs. The term has been used in political theory to describe internal conflicts within parties, movements, or states, where rival factions struggle for power or influence. Originating from the concept of “factions” discussed by early political thinkers like James Madison in the U.S. Federalist Papers, factionalism can destabilize organizations or governments, but it can also promote debate and diversity of thought. However, unchecked factionalism may lead to fragmentation, weakening the unity or effectiveness of a grou
Direct action
illegal or unconstitutional action that refers to a form of political protest or activism where individuals or groups take immediate, often confrontational measures to achieve their goals, bypassing traditional political channels like voting or lobbying. The concept emerged prominently in the 19th and 20th centuries, especially within labor movements and civil rights struggles, where groups sought to directly challenge authority through strikes, boycotts, sit-ins, or other forms of civil disobedience. Direct action is seen as a powerful tool for bringing attention to social issues and pressuring authorities, though it can be controversial due to its potential for disruption and the risk of escalating tensions.
civil disobedience
direct action to make an explicit point justified by moral principles and with acceptance of legal consequences
descriptive vs substantiated representation
Descriptive representation refers to the idea that elected representatives should mirror the demographic characteristics of the population they represent, such as gender, race, or socioeconomic status. This concept gained traction in the 20th century, particularly in discussions around identity politics and calls for greater diversity in political bodies. Descriptive representation aims to ensure that all social groups have a voice in political decision-making, though critics argue it may focus too much on identity rather than policy expertise or effectiveness.
Substantive representation, on the other hand, focuses on the extent to which elected representatives advocate for and enact policies that align with the interests, needs, and values of their constituents. This model prioritizes the policy actions of representatives, regardless of their demographic background. Substantive representation is critical for ensuring that all voters, especially marginalized groups, are effectively represented in government, but it can be challenging to measure the true alignment of policies with constituent preferences.
association/ interest groups
an organized group of ppl that aims to influence policies or actions of government through lobbying and advocacy
political party
an organized group of ppl that aims to form the government, usually through elections
social movement
the loosely organized group of people that aim to collectively achieve a social goal/ social change
Cartel parties
are political parties that, rather than competing openly for broad public support, form mutually beneficial arrangements with each other and rely heavily on state resources for funding and support. The concept, developed by political scientists Richard Katz and Peter Mair in the 1990s, reflects how many established parties in advanced democracies have shifted from grassroots organizations to elite-led institutions that protect their interests within the political system. Cartel parties tend to limit competition by creating barriers for new parties, and by relying on public funding rather than membership contributions, they often grow distant from ordinary voters. This trend can lead to voter disengagement and scepticism toward the political establishment.
