Introduction, acquiring knowledge, and the scientific method Flashcards
methods of acquiring knowledge
the different ways that people know or the methods that people use to discover answers
nonscientific approaches to acquiring knowledge (5)
(1) method of tenacity, (2) method of intuition, (3) the method of authority, (4) the rational method and (5) the method of empiricism (IRATE)
method of tenacity
information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it; habit or superstition (belief perseverance)
who successfully uses the method of tenacity
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disadvantages of the method of tenacity (2)
(1) information might not be accurate and (2) no method for correcting false ideas
method of intuition
information is accepted on the basis of a hunch of gut feeling;
disadvantage of the method of intuition
no mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge
method of authority
a person relies on information or answers form an expert in the subject area
ways of using method authority (2)
(1) direct (expert) or (2) indirect (looking it up)
disadvantages of the method of authority (4)
(1) not always accurate information (biased experts), (2) could represent subjective views or personal opinion, (3) we often assume that expertise in one area can be generalized to other topics (famous people advertising certain products), (4) we often don’t question expert opinions and (5) not all “experts” are experts
method of faith
a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge
disadvantages to the method of faith (2)
(1) no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information and (2) involves accepting another’s view of the truth without verification
rational method (rationalism)
seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning
premise statements
describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true
argument
a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion
disadvantages/limitations of the rational method (2)
(1) the conclusion is not necessarily true unless all of the premises are and (2) people are not particularly good at logical reasoning
empirical method (empiricism)
uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge
disadvantages of the empirical method (4)
(1) we cannot necessarily believe everything we see or hear or feel (horizontal-vertical line illusion), (2) your perceptions can be drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings or beliefs, (3) we can misinterpret our observations, (4) can be time consuming or dangerous
scientific method
an approach to acquiring knowledge that involved formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers; uses observations to develop a hypothesis and then uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making additional, systemic observations
steps of the scientific method (5)
(1) observe behaviour or phenomena, (2) hypothesis (tentative answer), (3) generate testable prediction(s), (4) evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations and (5) use the observations to support, refute or refine the original hypothesis
induction or inductive reasoning
involved using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations
variables
characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals
hypothesis
a statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables; proposed answer
deduction or deductive reasoning
uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples
important principles of the scientific method (3)
(1) empirical, (2) public and (3) objective
replication
other individuals should be able to repeat the same step-by-step process that led to the observations so that they can be REPLICATED; verification
pseudoscience
a system of ideas often presented as science but actually lacking some of the key components that are essential to scientific research
differences between science and pseudoscience (4)
(1) testable and refutable hypotheses, (2) objective and unbiased evaluation of all the available evidence, (3) actively tests and challenges its own theories and adapts them when new evidence appears and (4) grounded in past science
quantitative research
measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, which are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation
qualitative research
making observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report
steps of the research process (10)
(1) research idea, (2) hypothesis, (3) how will you define and measure variables?, (4) participants/ subjects, (5) research strategy, (6) research design, (7) conduct the study, (8) evaluate the data, (9) report the results and (10) refine/ reformulate your research idea
research process: step 1
find an idea; general topic and do a lit review
research process: step 2
when developing a hypothesis, make sure there is a logical argument, it is testable and it is refutable
participants
humans involved in a study
subjects
non-human animals involved in a study
research process: step 3
picking participants also included how you will recruit them, inclusion criteria and an ethical plan
research process: step 9
reporting the results is how you make sure it is public and therefore scientific
research process: step 10
two parts of refining and reformulating your research idea are: (1) test the boundaries of the results and (2) refine the original research question
