introduction Flashcards
-coined by JA Schmidt
-study of the physical, chemical, biochemical & biological properties of drug substances or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources
Pharmacognosy
aspects of pharmacognosy
-history
-identification
-cultivation
-collection
-preparation
-evaluation
-preservation
-distribution
-use
medicinal plants used during ancient times
1-yarrow
2-marshmallow
3-grounsel
4-centuary
5-ephedra
6-muscari
medicinal plants during ne stone age
1-papaver somniferum
2-sambucus ebulus
3-fumaria officinales
4-verbena officinales
5-saponaria officinales
6-menyanthes trifoliata
land b/w rivers (tigris/euphrates)
ancient mes0potamia (iraq)
first developed civilization
sumerians
wedged shaped patterns pressed into wet mud
cuneiform writing system (mesopotamia)
largest & oldest surviving medical treaties from ancient mesopotamia
treaties of medical diagnosis & prognosis
provided the earliest known record of practice of the art of apothecary
babylonians
practitioners of healing
priest
pharmacist
physician
(sometimes, all in one)
sorcerer, diagnose the ailment
Ashipu
physician, specialist in herbal remedies
Asu
one of the texts recommends the application of dressing consisting of sesame oil, w/c acted as an antibacterial agent
law code of hammurabi
ebers papyrus contains
800 prescriptions
700 drugs
-bought the papyrus in 1862
-the papyrus contains surgical instructions & formulas for cosmetics
edwin smith papyrus
-oldest papyrus, deals with the health of woman, including birthing instructions
kahun medical papyrus
-father of pharmacognosy
-wrote de materia medica
-5 volumes
pedanios dioscorides
-traditional medicine of ancient india
-ayur = life
-veda = study
eat slowly & mindfully
ayurveda
earliest source of greek medical knowledge & descriptions of ancient greek
homer
contains more information concerning treatment of injuries than odyssey
iliad
-father of botany
-wrote de historia plantarum & de causis
theophrastus
published historia plantarum & de causis
johannes bodaeus
-pharmacist & physician of gladiators
-originator of cold cream
Galen (galenicals)
ingredients of cold cream
rose water
olive/almond oil
beeswax
moisturizer, treat mild sunburn
cold cream
-persian physician
-the master wiseman
-wrote kitab ash- shifa
avicenna (arabian era)
-ibn sina
-al shaikh al raees
avicenna
kitab-ash-shifa
-a vast philosophical & scientific encyclopedia
-written by avicenna
-among the most famous books in the history of medicine (arabian era)
-written by avicenna
canon of medicine
-famous & influential medical & health center
-school of salermo, italy
-epitomized by the work of a christian physician
Constantine the African
-introduced the arabian medicine to europe
-experiments of cohpon
-regimen sanitatis salerni (instruction on amintaining good health)
constantine the african
-gather herbs & simples in the field or raised them in their own herb garden (garden of simple)
-prepare it according to the art of apothecary for the benefit of the sick/injured
Monks
Monastic Pharmacy
-motivator of bock
-a pastor & physician
-town physician of bern
-wrote herbaram vivae eicones
-otto brunfels
-book contains original 135 detailed woodcuts of plants
first to create a system of botany that classified plants into 3 categories
-herb, shrub, tree
heironymous bock
-german father of botany
developed the prototype of modern phytography- plant description
heironymous bock
-full page illustrations
-added 100 plants not mentioned in earlier herbals
-the genus fuchsia was named in his honor
fuchs leonhart
-botanist & physician
-personal physician of ferdinand II, archduke of prague & austria, emperor maximillian II & to the holy emperor
-commentary on dioscorides’ work
pietro andrea mattioli
developed the first microscope in holand
Zacharias Jansen
-Father of microbiology
-invented the first practical microscope & use them to become the first person to see & describe bacteria & sperm
Anton Van Leewenhoek
discovered the use of digitalis & published an account of the foxglove & describe some of its medical uses
William Withering
Gave the world’s opium chief narcotic principle- morphine- & recognize the importance of a new class of organic compounds: alkaoids
Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Serturner
Emitine- ipecacuanha (1817)
Strychnine & Brucine- nux vomica (1818)
Quinine & Cincochine (anti-malarial)- cincoma bark (1820)
Joseph Bienjamin Caventou & Pierre Joseph Pelletier
natural substances which have undergone the process of collection and drying
crude drugs
Found as sedimentary deposits and as weathering or hydrothermal alteration products of rocks containing a high proportion of alumina-silicate minerals
Kaolin
- Used to stop bleeding and for a condition that involves swelling and sores in the mouth
- Kao– pectate– tx for diarrhea
Kaolin
- Syn: Diatomaceous earth, Diatomite
- Soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that can be crumbled into a fine white to off-
white powder - Component in toothpaste
- Used as a filter to clarify syrups and sugar and as a filling material in paper, paints, ceramics, soap and detergents.
Kieselguhr
Preparation of crude drugs
1- collection
2- harvesting
3- drying
4- curing
5- garbling
ensuring the true natural source of the drug
collection
-time wherein the drug in a part of a plant is highest in its content
-leaves: 8-10AM
collection time
collect when photosynthesis is active
flower tops/leaves
collect when fully matured
seeds
collect prior or just about the time of pollenation
flowers
collect during dry weather
gums & oleoresin
citrus fruits: pectin
unripe: protopectin
just ripe: pectin
overipe: pectic acid
marijuana young leaves
cannabidiol
marijuana mature leaves
cannabicol (THC)
tetrahydrocannabinol
to collect the materials without damaging the plant
harvesting
arrange systemically according to size, etc.
sorting
-removes moisture to ensure good keeping qualities
-process depends on the part of the plant to be dried
-flavonoids: will start degrade at 60degC
Drying
-stop action of enzyme & other chemical reaction
-fixes the active ingredient in a drug product
-prevents molds * bacterial action
-prevents change of color
drying
types of drying
-air drying (leaves)
-artificial drying (microwave) (fruits)
-vacuum drying
-sun (roots)
-special drying process that enhances the properties of plant’s active ingredient
-vanilla bean
-tobacco
curing
final step in the preparation of crude drugs, removal of extraneous matter such as other parts of the plants, dirt, & adulterants
-cleaning
-sorting
-grading by size, etc.
*must pass the quality standard (USP)
garbling
packaging, storage & preservation
-factors to consider:
1- moisture
2- light
3- temperature
4- insects
packaging, storage & preservation
storage materials
paper boxes
barrels
sacks
cans
to determine the quality & purity of drugs
evaluation of crude drugs
uses the organs of senses for evaluation of crude drugs
organoleptic
evaluate the microscopic appearance of drug
microscopic
bioassay procedures, assays that uses living animals or excised organs to evaluate the effect of drugs
pharmacologic
test for oxytoxin
use rooster
test for digitalis
use pigeon
test for atropine
use cat
test for heparin
use sheep plasma
assay of active constituents using chemicals (titration- best method of determining official potency)
chemical evaluation
chemical evaluation for
cottonseed oil
halphen’s test
chemical evaluation for
ergot
Van Urk’s reagent
chemical evaluation for
purine bases
murexide test
chemical evaluation for
tropane alkaloid
vitalis test
covers phytochemical screening: Alkaloids
(+) mayer’s reagent = cream ppt
(+) dragendorff’s reagent = orange brown ppt
using physical constants to determine the purity of drugs
physical:
-moisture content
-viscosity
-melting point
-optical rotation
measured on air-dried basis
-should be minimized to prevent decomposition or microbial contamination
moisture content
index of a drug composition standardizing liquid drugs
viscosity
index of purity
melting point
determine if drug is optically active, determined at 25degC using sodium lamp as light source
optical rotation
ration of velocity of the light in vacuum/velocity in the substance, constant for liquids, fixed in oils & volatile oil
refractive index
residue remaining after incineration
-reps organic salts naturally occurring, adhering to, or deliberately added to the drug
-criteria of identity or purity of drug
ash content
approximate measure of the chemical constituents of a drug
extractives
classification of crude drugs
1- alphabetical
2- taxonomic
3- morphological
4- pharmacologic
5- chemical
- Debasement of an article
- Involved different conditions
- Inferiority – substandard drug regardless of cause
- Spoilage – microbial attack
- Deterioration – impairment in the quality of drug
- Admixture – addition of one article to another; Cause: ignorance, carelessness or accident
- Sophistication – intentional or deliberate
- Substitution – entirely different article sold or used
adulteration of crude drugs
obtain the desirable portion and eliminate the inert material by treatment with a selective solvent known as menstruum
extraction
during extraction, it is the undissolved portion of the drug
residue
the product of extraction process
percolate or extractive
appropriate solvents:
fats - hexane
resins- alcohol
chlorophyll - acetone
chrysarobin- hot benzene
sequential extraction
non-polar (hexane)
semi-polar (acid acetate)
polar (ethanol)
exhausted extraction
-when the solvent no longer dissolves a significant amount of the compound from the sample
- further extraction with the same solvent will not increase the yield
drugs w/c contains water-soluble active constituents
-tannins, sugars, glycosides)
water soluble extractives
determine approximate resin content of drug, official method for assay of myrrh & asofoctida
alcohol soluble extractives
-volatile ether-soluble extractives, represent volatile oil of the drug
-non-volatile ether- represents resins, fixed oil, coloring matter
ether soluble extractives
METHODS OF EXTRACTION
- Infusion – hot water (eg. Tea); less contact time
- Maceration – soaked in solvent for long period of time regardless of the
temperature; saturating the portions - Percolation – continuous extracting process
- Digestion - <30° - 40°C; slow heat
- Decoction – boiling water
- Liquid – liquid extraction: partitioning
- Distillation – for volatile substances
process of producing
drug biogenesis & biosynthesis
-for disease resistance
-secondary metabolites produced in plants for protection versus infection & other attacking organisms
phytoalexins
-resveratrol - slenda
-scopoletin- solnum tuberosum
-capsidol- a defensive sesquiterpene produced by wild tobacco
