Intro to Psychology Year Review Flashcards
Discrimination vs. Extinction
Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses.
Extinction, in operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it.
Effects of Perceived Control
- when people are optimistic and believe that they have control over situation tend have better state of health following it
- when people are pessimistic and believe that they have no sense of control over the situation will haves worse state of health such as harsher ulcers and lower immunity
Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcement
Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcements because of one’s overall desire for instant gratification
variable-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards that first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time.
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that triggers a responses reflexively and automatically (presence of food)
Ivan Pavlov’s Dog Experiment
- Pavlov was initially testing the effects of salivation on digestion
- As the dog became familiar with the procedure he began salivating as the site of the researcher’s assistant or as they were being harnessed
- Pavlov wanted to learn what other ways he could control the salivation of the dogs, so he preceded feeding time with the tuning of fork to begin acquisition
Classical Conditioning and Cognition
Robert Rescorla realized that certain aspects of classical conditioning situations could not be explained without referring to mental processes since it refers to whether calculating an event is predictable or not.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.
unconditioned response
an automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation in response to presence of food)
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening (distress) or challenging (estress)
negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state
shaping
Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; the operant technique used to establish new behaviors.
Type B
a term for easygoing, relaxed people who are less prone to illness
Punishment
Punishment is any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior
effects of stress on the immune system
- biological cycles such as sleep, dietary and menstrual cycles may be altered
- cortisol is the stress hormone that attacks the immune system
- more prone to illness or not healing properly
Acquisition
- the process of developing a learned response
- acquisition occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus; repeated pairings are called trials
fixed-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response
positive reinforcement
Postive reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state
Type A
type a personalities anger-prone, aggressive, and competitive and more likely to experience heart disease
Results of Daily Stress Burnout
Depression: emotional exhaustion
Decreased performance: physical exhaustion
Cynicism: mental exhaustion
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior
response
any behavior or action
responding to stress
- increased heart rate
- dilated pupils
- dulled sensation of pain
- increased blood flow to major organs
- flight or fight
- stress hormone cortisol is secreted and attacks the immune system
- increased body temperature
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior cause by experience
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that behaviors with favorable consequences (reinforced behaviors) will occur more often and behaviors followed by less favorable consequences (punished behaviors) will occur less often
Generalization
producing the same response to two similar stimuli
Stress in Relation to Cancer and Heart Disease
-stress does not cause cancer or heart disease but stress reactions affect the body’s ability to fight these illnesses
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the future likelihood a behavior
Types of Stressors
Daily Stressors: lost car keys, forgotten homework, project
Significant Life Changes: death of a loved one, lost job
Catastrophe: hurricanes, terror attacks, wars
conditioned stimulus
previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gain the power to cause a response (sound of the bell)
Classical Conditioning and Behavior
John B. Watson believed that you could control a learner’s behavioral response by manipulating a stimulus in the environment. Used this contradict Freud’s psychodynamic theory and illustrated this point with his experiment with little Albert
conditioned response
the response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation)
Hangs Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
- the concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases- alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
- alarm: stressor occurs, is identified and resources (hormones, energy) are mobilized to respond
- resistance: when one copes with stressor and physiological systems of stress is felt, resistance can only take place for so long
- exhaustion: immune system and energy system crashes
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not produces any response until it is associated with a previously unconditioned stimulus
Partial Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses. There are four types of of operant conditioning):
- Fixed Interval Schedule
- Variable Interval Schedule
- Fixed Ratio Schedule
- Variable Ratio Schedule
Primary versus Secondary Reinforcement
Primary reinforcement is something that is naturally reinforcing such as food, warmth and water.
Secondary reinforcement is something that you have learned to value, like money.
health psychology
a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affect well-being and health
Variable-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses.
Over-justification Effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do; the reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated.
Continuous Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response.
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone.
stimulus
anything in the environment that one can respond to
discrimination
the ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct response
Cognitive Map
The mental representation of a place
Biological Perspective of Adolescent Development
-adolescence begins at puberty around 11-13 yrs of age
-marked by the. development of primary (reproductive organs and genitalia) and secondary sex (breast, hip and voice changes) characteristics
-
Broca’s area
directs muscle movements involved in speech (left frontal lobe)
case study
a research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Concrete Operational of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
takes place from 6 or 7 to 11 years; marked by thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations; developmental events are marked by understanding of conservation and mathematics operations
Critiques of Piaget’s Assessments
- does not take into account culture
- puberty is not taken account for (between 12 y.o. and adulthood)
- often underestimated a child’s cognitive capacities resulting in distorted age ranges
The Main Functions of the Right Hemisphere
responsible for spatial abilities (such as organizing items within a given space); also allows us to establish connections between words
zygote
a fertilized egg; a zygote remains a zygote during the first two weeks where the cell begins to divide and the resulting cells start to differentiate
fetal alcohol syndrome
physical and cognitive abnormalities that appear in children whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while pregnant; abnormalities include misproportioned head and facial features and struggling cognitive skills that can take place well into adulthood
authoritative parenting
a style of parenting marked by making demands on the child, being responsive, setting and enforcing rules, and discussing the reasons behind the rules
permissive parenting
a style of parenting marked by by submitting to children’s desires, making few demands, and using little punishment
amygdala
controls emotional responses such as fear and anger
insecure avoidant attachment
child removes his or herself from the presence of the caregiver (but does not show emotion)
occipital lobes
visual processing areas of the brain
Preoperational Stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
takes place from two years to six or seven; characterized representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning; key developmental events pretend play, egocentrism, and language development
parietal lobes
includes the somatosensory cortex and general association areas used for processing information
assimiliation
interpreting your new experiences in terms of your existing schemas
limbic system
ring of structures that regulates important functions such as memory, fear, aggression, hunger, thirst
the limbic system includes within it the hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala
Brainstem
part of the brain responsible for automatic survival functions (breathing, heartbeat)
reticular formation
controls wakefulness and arousal
corpus callosum
connects the two brain hemispheres and allows the to communicate with one another
brain development
at birth we do not have the neural pathways that allow us to memorize events and move the way that we do now.
computerized axial tomography (CAT scan or CT scan)
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by the computer into a composite representation of a slice through of the body; basically this allows us to see the structure of the brain
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
Components of Attachment: Familiarity
familiarity to overcome stranger anxiety and foster contentment
secure attachment
children explore their environment when the caregiver is present; upon departure they become distressed and run to the caregiver union reunion
insecure ambivalent attachment
child shows no sign of emotion (distress or contentment)
electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity a that sweep across the brain’s surface; these waves, measured by electrodes places on the scalp are helpful in evaluating brain function
temporal lobes
auditory processing center
somatosensory cotex
registers and processing body sensations; component of the parietal lobe
Wernicke’s area
part of brain involved language comprehension (left temporal lobe)
Phineas Gage
a railroad worker in 1848 who obtained a traumatic injury to his frontal lobe; the personality changes that resulted allowed us to understand that the frontal lobe heavily influences personality and judgement
Formal Operational of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
from 12 years through adulthood; marked by abstract reasoning and potential for mature moral reasoning
cerebellum
helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance
The Main Functions of the Left Hemisphere
the speech center of the brain
embryo
the baby is now called an embryo from two weeks to 8 weeks where one can detect a heartbeat, red blood cells are produced by the baby’s own liver as the major organs begin to form
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior; experience does not influence maturation but it is purely effected by genetic predisposition; experience does influence development such a reading and social skills however
authoritarian parenting
a style of parenting marked by imposing rules and expecting obedience
disorganized insecure attachment
the child is sometimes ambivalent or sometime avoidant
hippocampus
processes and stores memories
accommodation
adapting your current schemas to incorporate new information
Sensorimotor Stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
takes place from birth to two years; characterized by experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping); object permanence is a key development that takes places during this stage
hypothalamus
below the thalamus that helps regulate hemostatic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature
also responsible for the fight or flight mechanism, emotion, pleasure and sexual functions
frontal lobes
responsible for advanced cognitive abilities such as judgement and planning
schemas
concepts or metal frameworks that organize and interpret information
indifferent parenting
style of parenting where the is passiveness between both parties, little warmth, communication and expectations are present
medulla
part of the brainstem; it is also responsible for heartbeat, breathing, swallowing etc
thalamus
brain’s sensory switchboard, directs message to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex
attachment
the emotional tie with another person shown by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress upon separation
Components of Attachment: Body Contact
being held and comforted by a caregiver has been shown to be more effective in forming attachment than simply be nourished by a caregiver (Harlow’s experiment with baby monkey’
Reponsiveness
responsiveness- parents are aware of what their child is doing and respond accordingly
insecure attachment
are often clingy to the parent when present; when the caregiver leaves they cry or show indifference to the caregiver’s departure and return
positron emission tomography (PET) scan
a visual display of brain activity
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among soft types of tissue; this allows us to see the structures within the brain
motor cortex
control voluntary movement; component of the frontal lobe
participation bias
tendency for participants to behave in certain ways because they know that they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants
Edward Titchener
structuralism
focused on the structure of consciousness; analysis of intensity, clarity, quality
Piaget
child behavior and child thinking processes
evolutionary perspective
focuses on the principles of natural selection to study the roots of behavior and mental processes
Psychodynamic Perspective
how people are affected by unconscious drives and conflicts
behavioral perspective
focuses on observable responses and how we lead through a system of rewards, punishment, andobservation
Nature vs. Nature
how genetic influences and pre-disposition influence our psychology versus non-genetic influences such as values, personality,
and interests
Peers
- music
- sports/ extracurriculars
- view of right and wrong
- reaction to peer pressure
longitudinal studies
follows the same group of people over long periods of time
Early Childhood Experiences
- language development
- communication/ interactions
- social norms
- using utensils
biological perspective
how physical structures and substances influence underlying given behavior, thought or emotion
Survey
technique that questions a sample of people to collect information about their behaviors and attitudes
Wilhelm Wundt
father psychology
introspection: describe conscious experiences in a systemic way
John Watson
behaviorism: theory that psychology should only study observable behavior, not mental processes
confirmation bias
when the researcher tends to focus on information that supports preconception
William James
functionalism: how consciousness helps us adapt to our environment
social-cultural perspective
how thinking and behavior changes in different situations or as a result of cultural influences
humanistic perspective
how healthy people strive to reach their full potential
Case Study
one person is studied thoroughly in hoping to revealing universal principles
cognitive perspective
how we process information, store it and retrieve it
Culture
- social norms
- fashion
- trends
- views of people (generalization/discrimination)
- morals/ values
Parents
-morals/ values
cross-sectional study
compares individuals from different age groups at one time
psychology
the science of mental processes and behavior
science: experiments
mental processes: thoughts, feelings, emotions
behavior: observable, actions and reactions
Sigmund Freud
focus on psychoanalysis:
theory on personality that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious drives and desires
Correlational
studies the relationship between two variables (negatively and positively related)
Effects of Perceived Control
- when people are optimistic and believe that they have control over situation tend have better state of health following it
- when people are pessimistic and believe that they have no sense of control over the situation will haves worse state of health such as harsher ulcers and lower immunity
Discrimination vs. Extinction
Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses.
Extinction, in operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it.
Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcement
Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcements because of one’s overall desire for instant gratification
variable-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards that first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time.
unconditioned stimulus
a stimulus that triggers a responses reflexively and automatically (presence of food)
Ivan Pavlov’s Dog Experiment
- Pavlov was initially testing the effects of salivation on digestion
- As the dog became familiar with the procedure he began salivating as the site of the researcher’s assistant or as they were being harnessed
- Pavlov wanted to learn what other ways he could control the salivation of the dogs, so he preceded feeding time with the tuning of fork to begin acquisition
Classical Conditioning and Cognition
Robert Rescorla realized that certain aspects of classical conditioning situations could not be explained without referring to mental processes since it refers to whether calculating an event is predictable or not.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.
unconditioned response
an automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation in response to presence of food)
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening (distress) or challenging (estress)
negative reinforcement
Negative reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state
shaping
Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; the operant technique used to establish new behaviors.
Type B
a term for easygoing, relaxed people who are less prone to illness
Punishment
Punishment is any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior
effects of stress on the immune system
- biological cycles such as sleep, dietary and menstrual cycles may be altered
- cortisol is the stress hormone that attacks the immune system
- more prone to illness or not healing properly
Acquisition
- the process of developing a learned response
- acquisition occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus; repeated pairings are called trials
fixed-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response
positive reinforcement
Postive reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state
Type A
type a personalities anger-prone, aggressive, and competitive and more likely to experience heart disease
Results of Daily Stress Burnout
Depression: emotional exhaustion
Decreased performance: physical exhaustion
Cynicism: mental exhaustion
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior
response
any behavior or action
responding to stress
- increased heart rate
- dilated pupils
- dulled sensation of pain
- increased blood flow to major organs
- flight or fight
- stress hormone cortisol is secreted and attacks the immune system
- increased body temperature
learning
a relatively permanent change in behavior cause by experience
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that behaviors with favorable consequences (reinforced behaviors) will occur more often and behaviors followed by less favorable consequences (punished behaviors) will occur less often
Generalization
producing the same response to two similar stimuli
Stress in Relation to Cancer and Heart Disease
-stress does not cause cancer or heart disease but stress reactions affect the body’s ability to fight these illnesses
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the future likelihood a behavior
Types of Stressors
Daily Stressors: lost car keys, forgotten homework, project
Significant Life Changes: death of a loved one, lost job
Catastrophe: hurricanes, terror attacks, wars
conditioned stimulus
previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gain the power to cause a response (sound of the bell)
Classical Conditioning and Behavior
John B. Watson believed that you could control a learner’s behavioral response by manipulating a stimulus in the environment. Used this contradict Freud’s psychodynamic theory and illustrated this point with his experiment with little Albert
conditioned response
the response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation)
Hangs Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
- the concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases- alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
- alarm: stressor occurs, is identified and resources (hormones, energy) are mobilized to respond
- resistance: when one copes with stressor and physiological systems of stress is felt, resistance can only take place for so long
- exhaustion: immune system and energy system crashes
neutral stimulus
a stimulus that does not produces any response until it is associated with a previously unconditioned stimulus
Partial Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses. There are four types of of operant conditioning):
- Fixed Interval Schedule
- Variable Interval Schedule
- Fixed Ratio Schedule
- Variable Ratio Schedule
Primary versus Secondary Reinforcement
Primary reinforcement is something that is naturally reinforcing such as food, warmth and water.
Secondary reinforcement is something that you have learned to value, like money.
health psychology
a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affect well-being and health
Variable-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses.
Over-justification Effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do; the reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated.
Continuous Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response.
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone.
stimulus
anything in the environment that one can respond to
discrimination
the ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct response
Cognitive Map
The mental representation of a place
