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Choate Intro to Psychology > Intro to Psychology Year Review > Flashcards

Intro to Psychology Year Review Flashcards

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0
Q

Discrimination vs. Extinction

A

Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses.
Extinction, in operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it.

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1
Q

Effects of Perceived Control

A
  • when people are optimistic and believe that they have control over situation tend have better state of health following it
  • when people are pessimistic and believe that they have no sense of control over the situation will haves worse state of health such as harsher ulcers and lower immunity
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2
Q

Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcement

A

Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcements because of one’s overall desire for instant gratification

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3
Q

variable-interval schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards that first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time.

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4
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

a stimulus that triggers a responses reflexively and automatically (presence of food)

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5
Q

Ivan Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

A
  • Pavlov was initially testing the effects of salivation on digestion
  • As the dog became familiar with the procedure he began salivating as the site of the researcher’s assistant or as they were being harnessed
  • Pavlov wanted to learn what other ways he could control the salivation of the dogs, so he preceded feeding time with the tuning of fork to begin acquisition
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6
Q

Classical Conditioning and Cognition

A

Robert Rescorla realized that certain aspects of classical conditioning situations could not be explained without referring to mental processes since it refers to whether calculating an event is predictable or not.

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7
Q

Latent Learning

A

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.

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8
Q

unconditioned response

A

an automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation in response to presence of food)

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9
Q

stress

A

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening (distress) or challenging (estress)

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10
Q

negative reinforcement

A

Negative reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state

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11
Q

shaping

A

Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; the operant technique used to establish new behaviors.

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12
Q

Type B

A

a term for easygoing, relaxed people who are less prone to illness

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13
Q

Punishment

A

Punishment is any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior

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14
Q

effects of stress on the immune system

A
  • biological cycles such as sleep, dietary and menstrual cycles may be altered
  • cortisol is the stress hormone that attacks the immune system
  • more prone to illness or not healing properly
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15
Q

Acquisition

A
  • the process of developing a learned response
  • acquisition occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus; repeated pairings are called trials
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16
Q

fixed-interval schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period

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17
Q

classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response

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18
Q

positive reinforcement

A

Postive reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state

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19
Q

Type A

A

type a personalities anger-prone, aggressive, and competitive and more likely to experience heart disease

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20
Q

Results of Daily Stress Burnout

A

Depression: emotional exhaustion
Decreased performance: physical exhaustion
Cynicism: mental exhaustion

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21
Q

operant conditioning

A

a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior

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22
Q

response

A

any behavior or action

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23
Q

responding to stress

A
  • increased heart rate
  • dilated pupils
  • dulled sensation of pain
  • increased blood flow to major organs
  • flight or fight
  • stress hormone cortisol is secreted and attacks the immune system
  • increased body temperature
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24
Q

learning

A

a relatively permanent change in behavior cause by experience

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25
Q

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that behaviors with favorable consequences (reinforced behaviors) will occur more often and behaviors followed by less favorable consequences (punished behaviors) will occur less often

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26
Q

Generalization

A

producing the same response to two similar stimuli

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27
Q

Stress in Relation to Cancer and Heart Disease

A

-stress does not cause cancer or heart disease but stress reactions affect the body’s ability to fight these illnesses

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28
Q

Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the future likelihood a behavior

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29
Q

Types of Stressors

A

Daily Stressors: lost car keys, forgotten homework, project
Significant Life Changes: death of a loved one, lost job
Catastrophe: hurricanes, terror attacks, wars

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30
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gain the power to cause a response (sound of the bell)

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31
Q

Classical Conditioning and Behavior

A

John B. Watson believed that you could control a learner’s behavioral response by manipulating a stimulus in the environment. Used this contradict Freud’s psychodynamic theory and illustrated this point with his experiment with little Albert

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32
Q

conditioned response

A

the response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation)

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33
Q

Hangs Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

A
  • the concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases- alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
  • alarm: stressor occurs, is identified and resources (hormones, energy) are mobilized to respond
  • resistance: when one copes with stressor and physiological systems of stress is felt, resistance can only take place for so long
  • exhaustion: immune system and energy system crashes
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34
Q

neutral stimulus

A

a stimulus that does not produces any response until it is associated with a previously unconditioned stimulus

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35
Q

Partial Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses. There are four types of of operant conditioning):

  1. Fixed Interval Schedule
  2. Variable Interval Schedule
  3. Fixed Ratio Schedule
  4. Variable Ratio Schedule
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36
Q

Primary versus Secondary Reinforcement

A

Primary reinforcement is something that is naturally reinforcing such as food, warmth and water.
Secondary reinforcement is something that you have learned to value, like money.

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37
Q

health psychology

A

a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affect well-being and health

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38
Q

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses.

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39
Q

Over-justification Effect

A

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do; the reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated.

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40
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response.

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41
Q

Extinction

A

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone.

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42
Q

stimulus

A

anything in the environment that one can respond to

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43
Q

discrimination

A

the ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses

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44
Q

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct response

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45
Q

Cognitive Map

A

The mental representation of a place

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46
Q

Biological Perspective of Adolescent Development

A

-adolescence begins at puberty around 11-13 yrs of age
-marked by the. development of primary (reproductive organs and genitalia) and secondary sex (breast, hip and voice changes) characteristics
-

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47
Q

Broca’s area

A

directs muscle movements involved in speech (left frontal lobe)

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48
Q

case study

A

a research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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49
Q

Concrete Operational of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A

takes place from 6 or 7 to 11 years; marked by thinking logically about concrete events, grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations; developmental events are marked by understanding of conservation and mathematics operations

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50
Q

Critiques of Piaget’s Assessments

A
  • does not take into account culture
  • puberty is not taken account for (between 12 y.o. and adulthood)
  • often underestimated a child’s cognitive capacities resulting in distorted age ranges
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51
Q

The Main Functions of the Right Hemisphere

A

responsible for spatial abilities (such as organizing items within a given space); also allows us to establish connections between words

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52
Q

zygote

A

a fertilized egg; a zygote remains a zygote during the first two weeks where the cell begins to divide and the resulting cells start to differentiate

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53
Q

fetal alcohol syndrome

A

physical and cognitive abnormalities that appear in children whose mothers consumed large amounts of alcohol while pregnant; abnormalities include misproportioned head and facial features and struggling cognitive skills that can take place well into adulthood

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54
Q

authoritative parenting

A

a style of parenting marked by making demands on the child, being responsive, setting and enforcing rules, and discussing the reasons behind the rules

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55
Q

permissive parenting

A

a style of parenting marked by by submitting to children’s desires, making few demands, and using little punishment

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56
Q

amygdala

A

controls emotional responses such as fear and anger

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57
Q

insecure avoidant attachment

A

child removes his or herself from the presence of the caregiver (but does not show emotion)

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58
Q

occipital lobes

A

visual processing areas of the brain

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59
Q

Preoperational Stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A

takes place from two years to six or seven; characterized representing things with words and images but lacking logical reasoning; key developmental events pretend play, egocentrism, and language development

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60
Q

parietal lobes

A

includes the somatosensory cortex and general association areas used for processing information

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61
Q

assimiliation

A

interpreting your new experiences in terms of your existing schemas

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62
Q

limbic system

A

ring of structures that regulates important functions such as memory, fear, aggression, hunger, thirst
the limbic system includes within it the hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdala

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63
Q

Brainstem

A

part of the brain responsible for automatic survival functions (breathing, heartbeat)

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64
Q

reticular formation

A

controls wakefulness and arousal

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65
Q

corpus callosum

A

connects the two brain hemispheres and allows the to communicate with one another

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66
Q

brain development

A

at birth we do not have the neural pathways that allow us to memorize events and move the way that we do now.

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67
Q

computerized axial tomography (CAT scan or CT scan)

A

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by the computer into a composite representation of a slice through of the body; basically this allows us to see the structure of the brain

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68
Q

stranger anxiety

A

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

69
Q

Components of Attachment: Familiarity

A

familiarity to overcome stranger anxiety and foster contentment

70
Q

secure attachment

A

children explore their environment when the caregiver is present; upon departure they become distressed and run to the caregiver union reunion

71
Q

insecure ambivalent attachment

A

child shows no sign of emotion (distress or contentment)

72
Q

electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity a that sweep across the brain’s surface; these waves, measured by electrodes places on the scalp are helpful in evaluating brain function

73
Q

temporal lobes

A

auditory processing center

74
Q

somatosensory cotex

A

registers and processing body sensations; component of the parietal lobe

75
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

part of brain involved language comprehension (left temporal lobe)

76
Q

Phineas Gage

A

a railroad worker in 1848 who obtained a traumatic injury to his frontal lobe; the personality changes that resulted allowed us to understand that the frontal lobe heavily influences personality and judgement

77
Q

Formal Operational of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A

from 12 years through adulthood; marked by abstract reasoning and potential for mature moral reasoning

78
Q

cerebellum

A

helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance

79
Q

The Main Functions of the Left Hemisphere

A

the speech center of the brain

80
Q

embryo

A

the baby is now called an embryo from two weeks to 8 weeks where one can detect a heartbeat, red blood cells are produced by the baby’s own liver as the major organs begin to form

81
Q

maturation

A

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior; experience does not influence maturation but it is purely effected by genetic predisposition; experience does influence development such a reading and social skills however

82
Q

authoritarian parenting

A

a style of parenting marked by imposing rules and expecting obedience

83
Q

disorganized insecure attachment

A

the child is sometimes ambivalent or sometime avoidant

84
Q

hippocampus

A

processes and stores memories

85
Q

accommodation

A

adapting your current schemas to incorporate new information

86
Q

Sensorimotor Stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A

takes place from birth to two years; characterized by experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, touching, mouthing, and grasping); object permanence is a key development that takes places during this stage

87
Q

hypothalamus

A

below the thalamus that helps regulate hemostatic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature
also responsible for the fight or flight mechanism, emotion, pleasure and sexual functions

88
Q

frontal lobes

A

responsible for advanced cognitive abilities such as judgement and planning

89
Q

schemas

A

concepts or metal frameworks that organize and interpret information

90
Q

indifferent parenting

A

style of parenting where the is passiveness between both parties, little warmth, communication and expectations are present

91
Q

medulla

A

part of the brainstem; it is also responsible for heartbeat, breathing, swallowing etc

92
Q

thalamus

A

brain’s sensory switchboard, directs message to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex

93
Q

attachment

A

the emotional tie with another person shown by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress upon separation

94
Q

Components of Attachment: Body Contact

A

being held and comforted by a caregiver has been shown to be more effective in forming attachment than simply be nourished by a caregiver (Harlow’s experiment with baby monkey’

95
Q

Reponsiveness

A

responsiveness- parents are aware of what their child is doing and respond accordingly

96
Q

insecure attachment

A

are often clingy to the parent when present; when the caregiver leaves they cry or show indifference to the caregiver’s departure and return

97
Q

positron emission tomography (PET) scan

A

a visual display of brain activity

98
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among soft types of tissue; this allows us to see the structures within the brain

99
Q

motor cortex

A

control voluntary movement; component of the frontal lobe

100
Q

participation bias

A

tendency for participants to behave in certain ways because they know that they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants

101
Q

Edward Titchener

A

structuralism

focused on the structure of consciousness; analysis of intensity, clarity, quality

102
Q

Piaget

A

child behavior and child thinking processes

103
Q

evolutionary perspective

A

focuses on the principles of natural selection to study the roots of behavior and mental processes

104
Q

Psychodynamic Perspective

A

how people are affected by unconscious drives and conflicts

105
Q

behavioral perspective

A

focuses on observable responses and how we lead through a system of rewards, punishment, andobservation

106
Q

Nature vs. Nature

A

how genetic influences and pre-disposition influence our psychology versus non-genetic influences such as values, personality,
and interests

107
Q

Peers

A
  • music
  • sports/ extracurriculars
  • view of right and wrong
    - reaction to peer pressure
108
Q

longitudinal studies

A

follows the same group of people over long periods of time

109
Q

Early Childhood Experiences

A
  • language development
  • communication/ interactions
  • social norms
  • using utensils
110
Q

biological perspective

A

how physical structures and substances influence underlying given behavior, thought or emotion

111
Q

Survey

A

technique that questions a sample of people to collect information about their behaviors and attitudes

112
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

father psychology

introspection: describe conscious experiences in a systemic way

113
Q

John Watson

A

behaviorism: theory that psychology should only study observable behavior, not mental processes

114
Q

confirmation bias

A

when the researcher tends to focus on information that supports preconception

115
Q

William James

A

functionalism: how consciousness helps us adapt to our environment

116
Q

social-cultural perspective

A

how thinking and behavior changes in different situations or as a result of cultural influences

117
Q

humanistic perspective

A

how healthy people strive to reach their full potential

118
Q

Case Study

A

one person is studied thoroughly in hoping to revealing universal principles

119
Q

cognitive perspective

A

how we process information, store it and retrieve it

120
Q

Culture

A
  • social norms
  • fashion
  • trends
  • views of people (generalization/discrimination)
  • morals/ values
121
Q

Parents

A

-morals/ values

122
Q

cross-sectional study

A

compares individuals from different age groups at one time

123
Q

psychology

A

the science of mental processes and behavior
science: experiments
mental processes: thoughts, feelings, emotions
behavior: observable, actions and reactions

124
Q

Sigmund Freud

A

focus on psychoanalysis:

theory on personality that attributes our thoughts and actions to unconscious drives and desires

125
Q

Correlational

A

studies the relationship between two variables (negatively and positively related)

126
Q

Effects of Perceived Control

A
  • when people are optimistic and believe that they have control over situation tend have better state of health following it
  • when people are pessimistic and believe that they have no sense of control over the situation will haves worse state of health such as harsher ulcers and lower immunity
127
Q

Discrimination vs. Extinction

A

Discrimination is the ability to distinguish between similar signals or stimuli and produce different responses.
Extinction, in operant conditioning, the loss of a behavior when no consequence follows it.

128
Q

Immediate versus Delayed Reinforcement

A

Immediate reinforcement is more effective than delayed reinforcements because of one’s overall desire for instant gratification

129
Q

variable-interval schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards that first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time.

130
Q

unconditioned stimulus

A

a stimulus that triggers a responses reflexively and automatically (presence of food)

131
Q

Ivan Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

A
  • Pavlov was initially testing the effects of salivation on digestion
  • As the dog became familiar with the procedure he began salivating as the site of the researcher’s assistant or as they were being harnessed
  • Pavlov wanted to learn what other ways he could control the salivation of the dogs, so he preceded feeding time with the tuning of fork to begin acquisition
132
Q

Classical Conditioning and Cognition

A

Robert Rescorla realized that certain aspects of classical conditioning situations could not be explained without referring to mental processes since it refers to whether calculating an event is predictable or not.

133
Q

Latent Learning

A

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.

134
Q

unconditioned response

A

an automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus (salivation in response to presence of food)

135
Q

stress

A

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening (distress) or challenging (estress)

136
Q

negative reinforcement

A

Negative reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state

137
Q

shaping

A

Reinforcement of behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired one; the operant technique used to establish new behaviors.

138
Q

Type B

A

a term for easygoing, relaxed people who are less prone to illness

139
Q

Punishment

A

Punishment is any consequence that decreases the future likelihood of a behavior

140
Q

effects of stress on the immune system

A
  • biological cycles such as sleep, dietary and menstrual cycles may be altered
  • cortisol is the stress hormone that attacks the immune system
  • more prone to illness or not healing properly
141
Q

Acquisition

A
  • the process of developing a learned response
  • acquisition occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus; repeated pairings are called trials
142
Q

fixed-interval schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period

143
Q

classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response

144
Q

positive reinforcement

A

Postive reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state

145
Q

Type A

A

type a personalities anger-prone, aggressive, and competitive and more likely to experience heart disease

146
Q

Results of Daily Stress Burnout

A

Depression: emotional exhaustion
Decreased performance: physical exhaustion
Cynicism: mental exhaustion

147
Q

operant conditioning

A

a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows that behavior

148
Q

response

A

any behavior or action

149
Q

responding to stress

A
  • increased heart rate
  • dilated pupils
  • dulled sensation of pain
  • increased blood flow to major organs
  • flight or fight
  • stress hormone cortisol is secreted and attacks the immune system
  • increased body temperature
150
Q

learning

A

a relatively permanent change in behavior cause by experience

151
Q

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect states that behaviors with favorable consequences (reinforced behaviors) will occur more often and behaviors followed by less favorable consequences (punished behaviors) will occur less often

152
Q

Generalization

A

producing the same response to two similar stimuli

153
Q

Stress in Relation to Cancer and Heart Disease

A

-stress does not cause cancer or heart disease but stress reactions affect the body’s ability to fight these illnesses

154
Q

Reinforcement

A

Reinforcement is any consequence that increases the future likelihood a behavior

155
Q

Types of Stressors

A

Daily Stressors: lost car keys, forgotten homework, project
Significant Life Changes: death of a loved one, lost job
Catastrophe: hurricanes, terror attacks, wars

156
Q

conditioned stimulus

A

previously neutral stimulus that, through learning, gain the power to cause a response (sound of the bell)

157
Q

Classical Conditioning and Behavior

A

John B. Watson believed that you could control a learner’s behavioral response by manipulating a stimulus in the environment. Used this contradict Freud’s psychodynamic theory and illustrated this point with his experiment with little Albert

158
Q

conditioned response

A

the response to the conditioned stimulus (salivation)

159
Q

Hangs Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome

A
  • the concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases- alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
  • alarm: stressor occurs, is identified and resources (hormones, energy) are mobilized to respond
  • resistance: when one copes with stressor and physiological systems of stress is felt, resistance can only take place for so long
  • exhaustion: immune system and energy system crashes
160
Q

neutral stimulus

A

a stimulus that does not produces any response until it is associated with a previously unconditioned stimulus

161
Q

Partial Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses. There are four types of of operant conditioning):

  1. Fixed Interval Schedule
  2. Variable Interval Schedule
  3. Fixed Ratio Schedule
  4. Variable Ratio Schedule
162
Q

Primary versus Secondary Reinforcement

A

Primary reinforcement is something that is naturally reinforcing such as food, warmth and water.
Secondary reinforcement is something that you have learned to value, like money.

163
Q

health psychology

A

a subfield of psychology that focuses on how stress affect well-being and health

164
Q

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses.

165
Q

Over-justification Effect

A

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do; the reward may lessen and replace the person’s original, natural motivation so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated.

166
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response.

167
Q

Extinction

A

In classical conditioning, the diminishing of a learned response after repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone.

168
Q

stimulus

A

anything in the environment that one can respond to

169
Q

discrimination

A

the ability to distinguish between two signals or stimuli and produce different responses

170
Q

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct response

171
Q

Cognitive Map

A

The mental representation of a place

Choate Intro to Psychology (11 decks)

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