Intro 2-Intelligence Flashcards
What did Sternberg say about intelligence?
It is important to everyone, everyday, for example parents are concerned about child’s intelligence, for perception in long term relationships, and in jobs. Everyone has ideas of their own and others’ intelligence
What is the dictionary definition of intelligence?
Understanding as a quality admitting of degree; specifically superior understanding; quickness of mental apprehension, sagacity
What is Sternberg and Salter’s definition of intelligence?
Ability to engage in ‘goal-directed adaptive behaviour’
What is Boring’s definition of intelligence?
It is what intelligence tests measure
Why can intelligence be hard to measure?
It is a hypothetical construct-an explanatory variable not directly observable. It has a theoretical definition and the creation of the construct is part of operationalisation
Why is operationalisation necessary?
So things can be understood in terms of empirical observations
What are implicit theories of intelligence?
They are based on lay people’s views. They drive the way people perceive and evaluate own/others intelligence. They can give rise to more formal theories, and may generate new research hypotheses/inspire research
What has research found about implicit theories?
The theories depend on the sample or population being examined
What is an example of research into implicit theories of intelligence?
Sternberg et al. Individual conceptions in people studying in college library, people entering supermarket, and people waiting for the train (all groups of lay people)
What were the two phases of Sternberg et al’s experiment?
First asked to list behaviour characteristic of intelligence, academic intelligence, everyday intelligence and unintelligence. Then asked others to rate how well each behaviour listed reflected aspects of intelligence
What were the results of Sternberg et al’s study?
There are three dimensions of intelligence in laypersons: practical problem solving ability, verbal ability, and social competence
What was found when a similar study to Sternberg et al’s was completed with 140 experts in intelligence?
They rated verbal ability, problem solving ability and practical intelligence. There were similarities to lay people, but implicit theories can vary when considered across cultures, by experts, and across life span
How do lay persons’ implicit theories change across cultures?
Western culture focuses on speed of mental processing and ability to gather/assimilate/sort quickly and efficiently. Eastern culture focuses on goof cognitive/memory skills but also social/historical/spiritual aspects of interaction and problem solving skills
What did Siegler and Richards find about conceptions of intelligence for different ages?
At 6 months it is based on recognising things, signs of coordination, awareness and verbalisations. 2 years is based on verbal ability, learning, awareness, coordination and curiosity. 10 years based on verbal ability, learning, problem solving, reasoning and creativity. Adult intelligence is based on problem solving, verbal ability, reasoning and creativity
Who was Galton?
British naturalist and science author concerned with the heritability of intelligence. Founder of differential and experimental psychology with Wundt, and invented the terms ‘regression’ and ‘correlation coefficient’
What areas of intelligence was Galton interested in?
Showing that individuals differ in intelligence, and that intelligence was dealing with information gained through senses and so intelligence tests should involve reaction times
What did Binet contribute to intelligence?
The Binet-Simon scale was the first intelligence test for children
What did the Binet-Simon scale involve?
30 short everyday-related tasks such as following light with eyes, naming objects, counting coins etc. Tasks increased with difficulty, and aimed to determine the child’s mental age and then determine what is average
What did Stern create in relation to IQ and standardised testing?
The intelligence quotient (IQ) which is mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100. When mental age matches chronological age, the result would be 100 and so an IQ of 100 is average intelligence
What intelligence tests did Yerkes create during WW1?
The army alpha for literates and the beta test for illiterates (less than 6 years speaking English), to help assign tasks because it could be completed simultaneously by a number of people
How many subtests were in the army alpha test, and what were they?
Eight subtests: follow oral directions, solve arithmetic problems, show practical judgement, synonyms/antonyms, rearrange wrong sentences, uncompleted series of numbers, see analogies, and demonstrate information
How many subtests were in the army beta test, and what where they?
Seven subtests: maze tasks, cube analysis, X-O graphic displays, digit symbols, number symbols, complete a picture, and geometrical construction
What is the logic of intelligence testing?
Measuring consequential behaviour is not usually very efficient and so a test has several advantages as it is easy to do, takes less time, can have larger samples, and can be standardised
What does the triangle diagram represent in terms of the logic of intelligence testing?
Hypothetical property, consequential behaviour (grades/job performance/income/health etc), response (questions/tasks)
What did Spearman talk about?
General and specific intelligence (two factor theory) by looking at intelligence tests of memory and sensory discrimination then analysed the relationship, finding a positive correlation
What is general intelligence?
Underlying intelligence required for all intelligence performances
What is specific intelligence?
Spatial, vocab and maths
How is ‘g’ measured?
The Wechsler test (modelled by 2-factor theory)
How has the Wechsler test changed through time?
1939 Wechsler-Bellevue test. 1955 Wechsler adult intelligence scale (WAIS) and the Wechsler scale for children
How many subtests were in the WAIS, and what where they?
10 subtests: arithmetic, block design, comprehension, digit span, digit symbol test, information, object assembly, picture arrangement and completion, vocab, similarities. All tests represented either performance or verbal ability
What is the importance of WAIS?
Designed to test all people and all ages. Also includes the concept of deviation IQ which is actual test score divided by expected score for age, multiplied by 100
How else can ‘g’ be measured apart from WAIS?
Ravens progressive matrices, which is free of cultural influences (in particular-language), and can test from age 6 up to adults
What does Thurstone believe about the 2 factor theory of intelligence?
No such thing as ‘g’. There are ‘clusters of correlations’ which suggest primary mental abilities, but this is not ‘s’ either. ‘G’ results from 7 primary mental abilities with a three level hierarchy of general abilities, middle level abilities, specific abilities
What are the seven primary mental abilities?
Associative memory, number, perceptual speed, reasoning, space (spatial visualisation), verbal comprehension, word fluency
What did Cattell say about intelligence?
There is fluid and crystallised intelligence
What is crystallised intelligence?
Acquired knowledge and skills, stored information/cultural influences, vocab/comprehension/general knowledge. This intelligence increases through life and with experiences. This intelligence is what the WAIS measures
What is fluid intelligence?
Primary reasoning abilities. Ability to solve abstract relational problems. It is free of cultural influences, and is present from birth but stabilises in adulthood. This intelligence is what Ravens progressive matrices measures
What are middle level abilities?
Bottom up approaches describe them as ‘correlation clusters’ (Carroll). Top down approaches use broad ability surveys then see what it measures, which then identifies middle abilities that are not measured by IQ tests (Sternberg/Gardner and the case of Nadia)
What middle level abilities are omitted by intelligence tests?
Analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, practical intelligence (best predictor of job performance-Brody), emotional intelligence and wisdom
What is the psychometric approach to intelligence?
Based on findings of factor-analytic studies that looked at various psychometric properties of intelligence scales
What is the cognitive approach to intelligence?
Based on another set of intelligence tests that highlight biological and physiological processes of intelligence
What did Tiedemann suggest about intelligence?
A link between brain size and intelligence
What did McDaniels find about brain size and intelligence?
A meta-analysis found a correlation of r=0.33
What is the correlation between intelligence and cortical thickness?
Generally positive but small correlation. There are negative correlations in the youngest group only, but positive correlations in late childhood and later
How does cortical thickness develop?
There are developing differences in cortical thickness between superior and average intelligence groups. The superior group had thinner superior prefrontal cortex at earliest age, but there is a rapid increase in cortical thickness, peaking at age 13. Dynamic neuroanatomical expression of intelligence
How does skull size relate to intelligence?
48 male residents in Scotland 71-76. Intracranial volume estimated from external skill length/width with MRI. IQ scores estimated by National Adult Reading Test. Found that intracranial area accounts for 74% variance shared by NART and estimated intracranial volume
How was the IQ of King Robert 1 of Scotland estimated?
Cast skull measured and intracranial volume estimated. Regression between IQ and estimated intracranial volume used to estimate IQ, which was estimated at 128 (almost 2 standard deviations above the mean) which was congruent with his achievements
What are biological and physiological measures of intelligence?
Elementary cognitive tasks and intelligence (measure cognitive processes), measuring response time, Hick reaction time task (psychometric, and higher ability=less variability)
What is working memory and the n-back task?
Similar format and content to psychometric tests. Individual differences in ‘g’ is equal to differences in working memory capacity
What are the neural correlates of working memory?
Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Neurons keep representation active, particularly in face of interference and distraction
What are typical features of good intelligence tests?
Variety of tasks, standardisation of administration, norm referenced
What are intelligence tests used for?
Selection, diagnosis and evaluation, eg IQ predicts education achievement (r=0.50) and IQ is the best predictor for job performance (r=0.54)
What is the relationship between occupational status and IQ?
In adults, correlation is 0.50-0.60. Children’s IQ and job status =0.40. IQ is necessary buy not sufficient condition for success
How does IQ correlate with income?
r=0.40. Weekly wages 1992 by levels of schooling/cognitive ability. There is a linear trend. College graduates get better jobs independent of ability
What is validity?
Whether the test measures what it claims to measure
What are three different types of validity?
Face validity, concurrent validity and predictive validity
What is reliability?
Replicability
What are two types of reliability?
Internal reliability and test-retest reliability
How does test-retest reliability affect intelligence tests?
Fluctuation of IQ between tests may be as much as 15 IQ points (Benson), however remains relatively stable over time, but not perfect (Jones and Bayley)
What is the Flynn effect?
Scores on intelligence tests tend to fluctuate and change continuously, and there is a year-on-year rise, discovered by Flynn who completed a 73 study met analysis, finding the highest rise is in non-verbal tests, and the lowest gains is in verbal tests
What are explanations for the Flynn effect?
Better schooling, however this would result in reversed results. Generations getting more intelligent, however the changes are too rapid. Length of schooling, however this would mainly affect verbal tests. Test-taking sophistication, however doesn’t explain difference between verbal and non-verbal tests. Child rearing practices. Cognitive stimulation hypothesis, though there is little direct evidence. Nutrition, linked to brain size
How can increasing the amount of formal education intentionally improve intelligence?
The Holiday Effect. Causality however is unclear and it is ethically difficult to investigate
How can nutrition intentionally improve intelligence?
Slow food instead of fast food
What are cognitive enhancers?
‘Smart pills’. Eg Ritalin (methyphendiate) for attention and working memory. Ampakines that boost glutamate. Modafinil (DA reuptake inhibitor) for memory and planning
Do ‘smart pills’ actually increase intelligence?
Inconsistent findings as 37% of studies revealed no effects. There is indication of higher neural efficiency but there is no apparent effect on cognition. There is also individual variability on ability, personality and genotype
What are some examples of single gene disorders?
Fragile x syndrome, phenylketonuria, and Duchenne muscular dystrophia
What are some examples of chromosomal abnormalities?
Angelman syndrome, down syndrome, and triple x syndrome
What is heritability?
(h²) the proportion of total variation in a given population
What is the heritability of intelligence?
Generally increases with age of sample measured, maybe because the environment becomes more similar
What are some methods of assessing genetic heritability?
Family studies, twin studies and adoption studies
How are twin studies used?
Intra-class correlation measures extent of resemblance of MZ twins within and between pairs. (Vb-Vw)/(Vb+Vw) where Vb=variation between scores of pairs of twins and Vw=variation between one twin and the other twin within each pair
What is the average correlation for family, adoption and twin studies?
Test-retest correlations for ‘g’ are generally between 0.80 and 0.90
What genes are linked to intelligence?
The mechanism/s of intelligence are not yet fully known
What has been found about gender differences in intelligence based on Raven’s Progressive Matrices?
Court considered nearly 120 studies, finding very mixed results, suggesting no sex differences in IQ
What did Lynn and Irwing find about gender differences and intelligence?
Their meta-analysis looked at 57 studies across 30 countries and found no differences until age 15. After then there are slight differences, up to 5 IQ points
What do sex differences reveal?
Average difference between men and women as groups, not as individuals. The variability is small but the range is huge
What is the effect size for sex differences?
Relatively small when compared to other variables such as aggression. Differences in performance within each group are larger than between groups
What are the gender differences in type of ability?
Females achieve better in verbal tasks whereas males perform better in spatial tasks
What type of task favours males?
Visualisation, spatial orientation, throwing accuracy, visual interference, mathematical reasoning
What type of task favours females?
Perceptual speed, object location memory, word fluency, fine motor coordination, numerical calculation
What are the biological explanations for sex differences in intelligence?
Brain size, maturity rates, evolutionary perspective, hormones (testosterone and spatial intelligence), menstrual cycle (evidence from polycystic ovary syndrome)
What is the problem with human brain dimorphism outside the hypothalamus?
Few tests held up to test replication. Sexual dimorphisms are quite small. Inter-individual variability is large. Measurement techniques are often not sensitive enough. Brain locations and structures are not always obvious. Sample size is small as requires postmortem human brains
What did Broca find about the brain and gender?
Men have larger and heavier brains, but similarly men are generally larger and heavier. Brain size and weight are only rough measurements that don’t really explain anything. More meaningful comparison focuses on fine structures such as number of neurons
What is the problem with studying finer structures?
Uncountably large number of neurons. Estimating number from a much smaller sample. Postmortal shrinkage of brain makes estimation harder
What are some general sexual dimorphisms in the cortex?
Cortex is larger in me, and male cortex’s contain more neurons. Women have a larger proportion of grey to white matter. Absolute amount of grey/white matter however is higher in men
What was found when studying the neocortical neuron number in humans?
94 brains were investigated in 20-90 year olds, finding that the male cortex has 15.5% more neurons, and that 10% were lost over the life span of both sexes
What is the planum temporale?
The planum temporale has a large overlap with Wernicke’s language area. The left planum temporale is larger than the right in 65% of people
What are the sexual dimorphisms in the planum temporale?
This area shows dimorphisms in the cytoarchitecture. Women have higher density of neurons in layers II and VI
What are the sexual dimorphisms in the corpus callosum?
Some studies show dimorphisms in size and shape. Measurements are taken either postmortem or with MRI. The posterior part is selectively larger in women, and other studies have found the splenium of women to be more bulbous
What are biological explanations for sex differences in intelligence?
Brain functioning and spatial ability due to grey matter differences (information processing) and white matter (information transmission). Also differences in hemispheric asymmetries (in mental rotation tasks women use both hemispheres but men only use the right). There are sex differences in functional organisation of the brain during phonological tasks
What are sex differences in cognitive strategies?
Hypothetical pathway for solving rotation tasks in women and men: primary visual area, extrastriate cortex, inferior temporal inferior occipital regions, parietal regions (intraparietal sulcus) and premotor cortex
What are the environmental explanations of sex differences?
Stereotypes, which stem from use of schema (automatic and unconscious, used to make sense of the social world)
What was Swim’s study into intelligence?
Compared real sex differences and sex differences in stereotype ratings and categorised 3 stereotypes: overemphasised stereotypes eg aggression in males, underemphasised stereotypes eg males help in emergencies, and accurate stereotypes eg males being more restless
What was Steele’s study into intelligence?
Research into stereotype threat (fear of confirming observer’s stereotype). Empirical support and the Black Stanford University Student’s Intellectual Ability study, also replicated with asian American female undergraduates and in males
What is the neural basis of gender stereotype?
Induced shift in women’s mental rotation performance. Increased activation in brain regions associated with emotional load with negative stereotypes, and increased activation in regions linked to visual processing with the positive stereotype
What is the psychobiosocial approach?
Interactive effects of sex hormones and gender stereotypes on cognitive sex differences. 5 sex-sensitive cognitive tests, stereotype questionnaire, self-expectancy questionnaire, mood scale and hormone assays
