Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

University Year 1 > Health, Illness and Society > Flashcards

Health, Illness and Society Flashcards

1
Q

What are the characteristics of social anthropology?

A

Interdisciplinarity, holism, non-judgemental, disaggregative, cultural perspective, local and global interest, individuals/populations/groups/societies, methodological pluralism with innovation and sensitivity, comparative, historical, language/symbols/rituals/narrative

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

How is medical anthropology interdisciplinary?

A

Looks and bioscientific epidemiology, the construction of knowledge, the politics of science, norms and institutions, and globalisation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What were some of the earliest examples of medical anthropology?

A

Pre WW2, W.H.R Rivers looked at Medicine, Magic and Religion. Also Ackerknecht looked at ‘primitive medicine’/ethnomedicine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

What is ethnomedicine?

A

Relating to disease that are products of indigenous cultural development

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are culture bound syndromes?

A

Locality specific problems such as Hikikomori (Japan), voodoo death, cannibal compulsion, agoraphobia (Western)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

How did medical anthropology develop post WW2?

A

International public health and community health development. Kleinman used term ‘clinical anthropology’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What is the diversification of medical anthropology?

A

Organisationally/nationally-internationally/multi-disciplinarity/theoretically

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What are the three health definitions?

A

Disease (medical experts view), illness (patients view) and sickness (society’s view)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

What are diseases?

A

Abnormalities in structure/function of body organs or systems. Pathology, biomedically diagnosed and treated. Eg cystic fibrosis has both genetic and environmental factors, and is a biochemical dysfunction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What is Dingwall’s view of disease?

A

‘there are no…diseases in nature’ it is a social construction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What is Eisenberg’s view of illness?

A

Illness is experiences of disvalued changed in states of being/social function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What are illnesses?

A

People have illnesses where organs have diseases. Illnesses are the movement from independence to dependence. They are influenced by social and economic factors. Cystic fibrosis sufferers have the same disease but different illnesses due to different perspectives

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What is Cassell’s view of illness?

A

Illness is why you go to a doctor and disease is what you have after visiting the doctor. You cure a disease but heal an illness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What is sickness?

A

The sum total of disease and illness in an individual. Also process for socialising disease and illness (worrying behavioural/biological signs are given socially recognisable meanings (Young)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

In sickness, what are the social relations of, and responses to, ill health?

A

Patients associations, fundraising for research, shared metaphorical associations/stigma, discrimination against minorities/the vulnerable/dispossessed

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

What are possible examples of restricted categories (conditions that are not diseases and illnesses and sicknesses all together)?

A

Hypertension, mental health problems, hypochondria

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

When did homosexuality stop being viewed as a mental illness?

A

It was removed from the DSM III in 1980 and the ICD 10 in 1992

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What are some different approaches in medical anthropology?

A

Medical ecology, cultural interpretive theory, and critical medical anthropology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

What is medical ecology?

A

It discusses the determinants of disease and suffering: natural environment, social environment, systems approach and adaptation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

what is cultural interpretive theory?

A

Semantic determinants of disease and suffering: culture, interpretation, social construction

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What is critical medical anthropology?

A

Political-economic determinants of disease and suffering: power, resistance, global systems, ethics and rights, hegemony

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What are some methods in medical anthropology?

A

Surveys, participant observation (ethnography) (important reflexive dimension), interviews (informal, semi-structured), focus group discussions, life histories, participatory/action research (essays/mapping/seasonal calendar)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What is applied medical anthropology?

A

Critical understanding of perspectives, for better management of ill health

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What is health?

A

A human construct, not an empirical fact

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What are the three models of health?

A

Medical (absence of disease etc (negative definition)), functional/sociological (can perform daily tasks), idealist (complete well-being in all areas (biopsychosocial))

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What are other conceptions of health:

A

Balanced relationship to/between god, world of spirits, unconscious and constitutive elements. Being ‘normal’ (a commodity). May not bear any relation to one’s medical history

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

What is wellbeing?

A

The overlap of health, prosperity and happiness

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What do health systems include?

A

Institutions (formal/informal), activities (clinical/non-clinical practices), skills, knowledge/beliefs/attitudes. These are interconnected but not necessarily integrated

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

How can health systems be understood?

A

In relation to society. They cannot be understood in isolation from other aspects of society. Medicine is important but not the sum total of all health care activities that take place in a health system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What are the three sectors of health care?

A

Popular (lay/common-sense/informal), folk (alternative/complementary/traditional/non-orthodox/non-conventional), professional (scientific/biomedical/formal/ orthodox/conventional/ western/allopathic)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What is the popular sector?

A

Self-help. Consult with other lay people. 70-90% of all healthcare. Mainly provided by women/older people. Cults of affiliation/self-help groups/therapeutic communities (Hearing Voices Network)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What is the folk sector?

A

Healers/therapists. Not part of ‘official’ medical system. Sector/technical to sacred experts. Specialised skill. ‘Traditional medicine’. Some becoming increasingly professional, eg acupuncture, aromatherapy, herbalism, reflexology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What is the professional sector?

A

Medical/paramedical professionals in a legally sanctioned healing system

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

How can biomedicine be seen as a cultural system?

A

Varies cross-culturally and intra-culturally. Randomised controlled trials. Hierarchical, specialist oriented, individual case-centred. Increasingly dominant. Medicalisation (non-medical problems become defined/treated as medical problems eg social anxiety etc)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

What are similarities across medical systems?

A

Therapy managing groups. Explanatory models. Medical pluralism with separate use, hierarchy of resort or simultaneous use. Syncretism. Ritual

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

What are types of ritual?

A

Calendrical/cosmic cycle (rites of reversal: convival/saturnalia), transformative (rites of passage), misfortune

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

What are the characteristics of rituals?

A

Punctuate life. Performative acts (physical/emotional/cognitive elements). May indicate/create social transition. Elements often synthesised-shared/collective/powerful symbols

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

What is the transformational power of ritual?

A

Two functions: expressive and creative. There are three stages: separation, transition-liminality, incorporation. Example of going into hospital used to explain these three stages

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

What are the 6 stages of going to the doctor described by Byrne?

A

Establish rapport, discover why patient has come, verbal/physical examination, both parties consideration of patients condition, doctor details treatment and further tests, termination of consultation, usually by doctor

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

What does Katz discuss?

A

Ritual in the operating theatre: separation (scrubbing up), transition (cutting open-silence and concentration), incorporation (jokes/release of tension). Ritual certainty inspires confidence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

What are the three bodies in the mindful body?

A

The individual body (phenomenologically experienced). The social body (relationships among nature, society and culture). The body politic (artefact of social and political control, including regulation/surveillance)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

What is a problems that the concept of the mindful body causes?

A

It problematises Cartesian dualism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

What is phenomenology?

A

The study of consciousness and object of direct experience. Discussed by Husserl/Heidegger/Merleau-Ponty. Ontology: study of being or ‘what is’. Epistemology: study of knowledge

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

What is the phenomenology of health?

A

Study of direct experience of health. Linked to experience of body and senses. Heidegger talks about the ‘transparency of the body’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

What is embodiment?

A

Condition of bodily experience. Body understood to be: material, means of expression/representation, locus of practice and experience. Moving away from ‘biological essentialism’. The ‘lived body’-bodily experience is not fixe but lived

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

What is sensorial anthropology?

A

How sensations are experienced phenomenologically, interpreted culturally, and responded to socially

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

What is empathetic experience and pain in Yap?

A

Techniques such as massage are used to sense pain. Empathy is a complex phenomenon (tactile, intersubjective and multi-sensory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

What are the advantages of sensorial anthropology?

A

Can help us understand more about: popular health cultures, pharmaceutical practice, use of particular foods, drugs and substances, the ways cultures experience distress, healthcare systems

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

What are illness narratives?

A

They shape the interpretation and analysis of experiences. They are based on cultural beliefs and explanations. The ‘wounded storyteller’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

What does Fran, say about illness narratives?

A

Restitution (culturally preferred/clinically encouraged). Chaos (anti narrative. Depp illness). Quest (learning. can be passed on)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

What are lay explanations for ill health?

A

Diverse/fluid. May have different concerns to folk/professional sector. May be patterned by socio-economic position, age, gender, religion, ethnicity, geography

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

What are sites of illness aetiology?

A

Individual (sin/breach taboos/soul theft/weak immune system). Natural world (germs/behaviour/humoural imbalance/fate). Social world (sorcery/witchcraft/evil eye). Supernatural causes (punishment from God/spirit/ancestor)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

Who talks about witchcraft, oracles and magic among the Azande?

A

Evans-Pritchard who talks about questions of rationality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

Why do people believe things like witchcraft, oracles and magic are deficient?

A

Not based on sufficient evidence, not held critically or are held ‘unreflectiviely’, and called ‘beliefs’, not ‘knowledge’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

What is Koro?

A

It was a small scale epidemic in west Africa, which led to somatisation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

Where do ideas about illness aetiologies come from?

A

Rationality, personal experience, ‘media’, magazines, advertising, identity, culture, social structure (moral prescription to ‘be well’), position

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

What do Davidson et al talk about?

A

The ‘prevention paradox’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

How does industrial capitalism affect health?

A

Production: self denial/control/discipline/rationality. Consumption: irrationality/indulgence/pleasure seeking/release

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

What is the significance of lay explanations?

A

Help determine ‘health seeking behaviour’, stigma and explanatory models, form core part of much medical anthropology

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

What is health seeking behaviour?

A

Determined by health knowledge/beliefs, triggers to consult (Zola-cultural differences in reporting triggers), access issues.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
61
Q

What are barriers to consultation?

A

Fear, previous experience, symptom severity, access costs, stigma etc

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
62
Q

What is the illness iceberg?

A

75% of UK experience symptoms in two week period, but much less consult a doctor (Scambler et al-health diaries study)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
63
Q

Why have explanatory models been criticised?

A

For individual focus/hiding power relationships, and ignoring social processes

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
64
Q

What sort of health statistics are generally higher in poorer countries?

A

Under 5 mortality estimates, maternal mortality estimates, estimated TB incidence rates, malaria rates, life expectancy at birth (lower) , absolute poverty

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
65
Q

What is critical medical anthropology?

A

Critical theory and ethnographic methods to look into political economy of health in specific contexts

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
66
Q

How are AIDS and other illnesses similar to problems in history?

A

“Distributions of AIDS and tuberculosis-like that of slavery in early times-is historically given and economically driven”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
67
Q

How did ideas of HIV first start to come about?

A

First thought to be a zoonotic disease. Believed to have started in central Africa, then move to the West until a global pandemic occurred. There has now been a shift in focus from individual behaviours to wider social and cultural settings (individual risk behaviour to situated risk)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
68
Q

What are the problems with individual risk?

or does it mean problems of situated risk? Read up and correct this

A

Victim blaming, overly simplistic, deterministic, focus on the exotic, underpinned by racist or classist assumptions. There are immodest claims of causality

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
69
Q

How did Acéphie explain AIDS?

A

‘multitaxial modes of suffering’ including structural violence

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
70
Q

What does the embodiment of inequality lead to?

A

Social misery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
71
Q

What is biomedicine?

A

Common model of medical anthropologists employed by health professionals or medical researchers to uncover ‘local beliefs and practices’ , eg reasons for vaccine refusal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
72
Q

What is the aim of biomedical research in anthropology?

A

To overcome barriers to effective health interventions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
73
Q

Hoe does Scheper-Hughes critique clinically applied medical anthropology?

A

Compared ‘today’s’ and ‘earlier’ anthropologists. Anthropology is hand-maiden of clinical medicine. There is overemphasis on ‘local culture’ as a ‘problem’. Ignoring/downplaying wider field of social power relations in which ‘culture’ is embedded/how politics structure meaning/possibility biomedicine may be a cultural product

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
74
Q

What are implicit assumptions of anthropology and biomedicine?

A

Biomedicine is qualitatively different and superior as it is objective, based on measurable ‘facts’ and is socially/culturally neutral

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
75
Q

What is the anthropology of biomedicine?

A

Removes brackets. Biomedicine is a cultural phenomenon. It is one form of ethnomedicine rooted in particular cultural and historical settings

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
76
Q

What themes in the study of biomedicine can be seen as a form of ethnomedicine?

A

Historical contextualisation, biomedical discourse, practices and clinical settings, biomedical artefacts and material culture, questioning biomedical homogeneity and universality, globalisation and its consequences, doctor-patient interactions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
77
Q

What are key characteristics of biomedicine?

A

Empiricism, proximalism, physicalism, generalisability, modernism, reductionism

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
78
Q

What is the biomedical model of sickness?

A

Confined to individual bodies, attributed to malfunctioning of basic material building blocks of bodies, assumes ‘truth’ uncovered by microscope/test tubes. Focuses on ‘cure’ rather than ‘healing’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
79
Q

What does Martin say about studying biomedical discourse?

A

Unmask cultural assumptions hidden behind accounts of reproductive biology. Ideas shape ideas about how reproduction works and can have important ‘knock-on’ effect

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
80
Q

What is an example of studying practices and clinical settings

A

Quality and outcomes framework in UK general practice-phased out as costing NHS too much money to implement

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
81
Q

How is biomedical homogeneity and universality questioned?

A

Different roles in medical practice. International variations in biomedical practice. ‘Doctors’ different clinical specialists

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
82
Q

What is an example of cultural differences in biomedicine in Japan?

A

3x more beds than UK. Appointments are seen as disrespectful. Surrogate patients-family/friends take over interactions with doctor. Attitudes to cancer is not to tell the patient

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
83
Q

What are some consequences of globalisation?

A

India=major supplier of health professionals to the developed world. International migration of health personnel (10.3% doctors registered in uk qualified in India). Migration of doctors is a heavily debated topic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
84
Q

What are the two types of doctor-patient interactions?

A

Mutualistic and paternalistic

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
85
Q

What are mutualistic interactions?

A

Patient-centred. Involve listening, reflecting and clarifying. More often if the patient is younger, higher class, higher educated, or with high experience with their condition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
86
Q

What are paternalistic interactions?

A

Doctor-centred. Involve closed questions and the disease model. More often used if patient is older, lower class, lower education, or have less experience with their condition

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
87
Q

What are limitations of seeing biomedicine as ‘just another ethnomedicine’?

A

Acts more powerfully on many conditions. Has a reflexivity enabling paradigm shift. Product of socio-historical milieu. However, there are medically unexplained symptoms (Moatz et al), and mental illness with the cultural assumptions of ‘normal’

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
88
Q

What is the social context of ‘pathological’?

A

There is controlled abnormality-rites of reversal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
89
Q

What does Hugh-Jones say about medicines, drugs and foods?

A

They are commonalities linked with communication and expression of social values

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
90
Q

Why are medicines so popular?

A

Efficacy, detachable from context (allow power to help self), and metaphoric and metonymic qualities (affections, gifts, parental responsibility)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
91
Q

What are meanings behind medicines?

A

Metaphors-make sense of the world. Concreteness-make sense of and convey illness. Metonyms-draw on other kinds of connections. Retain partial connection to culture, ideas, and knowledge that produced them

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
92
Q

What is the placebo effect?

A

Important way in which meaning influences work of medicine. More to medicine than pharmacological properties-symbolic dimensions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
93
Q

What are 3-arm clinical trials?

A

Involve three groups-medication with active ingredient, placebo, and no intervention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
94
Q

What makes a placebo work?

A

(Moerman) physicians enthusiasm and confidence, appearance of the medicine including branding, patients adherence, culture and national identity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
95
Q

What are case studies of placebos?

A

The physical properties of medicines in India and antiretroviral medicines in Zambia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
96
Q

What is pharmakon?

A

Remedy and poison, reflected in users’ accounts permeated with feelings of both attraction and repulsion. Ambiguity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
97
Q

What is ‘the pharmaceutical person’ (Emily Martin)?

A

Poison aspects often displaced. Side effects and adverse effects

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
98
Q

What are cyborgs?

A

Half organism, half machine/artefact/technology/tool

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
99
Q

What problems occur when medicines travel?

A

Appropriation and indigenisation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
100
Q

What is the social life of medicine?

A

Acquire meaning through social relationships

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
101
Q

What are the three overlapping ways anthropologists ‘handle’ medicines?

A

Populist (sympathetic and celebrates capabilities), enlightened (doubts capabilities, critical, false consciousness), pragmatic (participation and engagement to create knowledge)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
102
Q

What is the oxygen case study?

A

Pharmakon-like properties. External ‘lung’ as cyborg. Following oxygen through industry from local market

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
103
Q

What is the case study of access to ARVs in Uganda an example of?

A

Power, control and pharmaceiticalisation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
104
Q

What is personhood?

A

What a constitutes a person can be constructed differently cross-culturally

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
105
Q

What is the western notion of the body?

A

Individual, autonomous whole. Separation between mind and body (Cartesian dualism). Mind rules the body in a healthy person

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
106
Q

What are composite persons/bodies?

A

In Luo in Kenya. Healing is restoring balance and openness to outside influences. Different models of worms (Luo model and biomedical model) and different boundaries and processes of life

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
107
Q

What are cross-cultural notions of parenthood?

A

Partible personhood in Melonesia (Stathern) and the fractal person (Taylor)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
108
Q

What is possession?

A

Discussed by Boddy (Zar cult-‘cult of affliction’) and by Ong (spirit possession in a multinational factory)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
109
Q

What is the Máori river system?

A

It was granted legal personhood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
110
Q

What is biomedicine and bounded body?

A

Disease=boundary infringement. Prioritise physical over mental illness . Ethical and legal personhood complications with stem cells due to status of embryos and immortalised stem cell lines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
111
Q

How can personhood can be partial/potential?

A

Prisoners, and when in persistent vegetive state

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
112
Q

What are health interventions?

A

Activity promoting behaviour improving mental/physical health or discourages/reformed risky behaviour. In or out of formal research or formal ‘health’ context

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
113
Q

What are forms of research?

A

Quantitative research, qualitative research, ethnography

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
114
Q

What is qualitative research?

A

Empirical, reductionist, ‘facts’, objectivity, validity, generalisability, reliability. Eg descriptive/analytic studies, experiments, surveys, case control and cohort studies, experiments, and RCTs. Eg afterlife of a malaria vaccine trial

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
115
Q

What is quantitative research?

A

Holistic, understanding, empathy, subjectivity, rapport, role of researcher, reflexivity, naturalism, generalisability, replicability, reliability, triangulation. Eg observation, interviews, focus groups, existing materials, participant-observation, semi-structured interviews, existing materials

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
116
Q

What are ethnographies?

A

Methodology-written product

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
117
Q

What is the case studies of tobacco control?

A

Fresh Smoke Free North East. WHO’s Framework Convention on Tobaccon Control

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
118
Q

What is the evolutionary/biomedical perspective in context?

A

We all live and die within sociocultural systems

119
Q

What are Elwell’s three types of phenomena?

A

Material (observable facts), structural (broad level), ideational (values, norms, ideologies)

120
Q

What does Rickard and Bentley discuss in terms of health inequalities?

A

Rickard: socioeconomic health inequalities. Bentley: other inequalities include age, gender, ethnicity etc

121
Q

What are non-communicable diseases?

A

Many causes, difficult to determine in clinical practice. Sometimes irreversible. The aim is management of conditions

122
Q

What are the 4 main categories of non-communicable diseases?

A

Cardiovascular, diabetes, chronic respiratory diseases and cancer

123
Q

What is epidemiology?

A

The study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people and why

124
Q

What is social epidemiology?

A

A branch focusing on the effects of social-structural factors on state of health

125
Q

What is the standardised mortality ratio?

A

Ratio of observed deaths in study group to expected deaths in general population

126
Q

What is evolutionary biology?

A

Study of patterns of variation among living things

127
Q

What is modern synthesis?

A

Genetics and Darwinian/Wallacean theories

128
Q

What four biological evolutionary processes give rise to genetic change in a population?

A

Drift, migration, mutation, natural selection

129
Q

What are plastic adaptive traits?

A

Development, physiological, behavioural etc

130
Q

What are fixed adaptive traits?

A

Eg anatomical

131
Q

What is the stress response?

A

HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis), cortisol released: mobilises sugars and fats for energy/reduces bone growth. Priorities short term survival. Balance of positives/benefits and negatives/costs

132
Q

What are living things?

A

Aggregations of organic matter that extract material resources from the environment and convert those resources into offspring

133
Q

What is one of the negative responses to that definition of living things?

A

It is true, but an oversimplification (reductionist)

134
Q

What is a defining feature of mammals?

A

Practicing parental care, which is provided by mothers in over 90% of species

135
Q

Why are humans different to other mammals?

A

Cannot produce/reproduce/live independently of other humans. Live in communities of different scales. Absolutely dependent despite size of community

136
Q

What is cumulative culture?

A

Food/consumption is a very social activity. Technology is crucial in industrialised societies. Technology requires culture which requires technology. Food is a cultural universal

137
Q

What is somatic vs extra-somatic digestion?

A

Humans have weakest bite force of all apes (mechanically digest food). Small intestines=nutrient absorption and large intestine=water reabsorption. Humans have smaller gut but longer small intestine (gene-culture coevolution)

138
Q

How are mammals unlike other animals in regard to reproduction?

A

It also involves maternal care. Infancy is the period of dependency, which ends when the infant is weaned

139
Q

What are allomothers?

A

Other mothers. These are present in new world monkeys, barbory macaques and humans

140
Q

How do humans use allomothers?

A

Human children are not raised by mothers independently. Allomaternal care is extremely important for child’s survival and wellbeing after child has been weaned

141
Q

How do human birth intervals compare to other apes?c

A

Chimpanzee: 4-5 years. Orangoutangs: 8 years. Humans: 2.5 years-3.5 years in all societies

142
Q

What is cumulative change?

A

Evolution has unhelpful connotations. ‘March of progress’. Complexity increases over time and comes with diversification of function

143
Q

What is the neolithic revolution?

A

Domestication of plants/animals for production of food on a big scale. Followed by a centralised state. Inevitable consequence of the creation of surplus food

144
Q

When was the industrial revolution?

A

18th century but with roots in the 17th century

145
Q

What is modernisation theory?

A

Progressive transition from traditional to modern society. Capitalism and efficient markets are central to this

146
Q

What does the Rostow model show?

A

Five stages of economic growth, though it is criticised due to ethnocentric perspective and over reliance on efficient markets

147
Q

What is dependency theory?

A

(Frank) Development of rich world achieved by exploiting poor world. Resources move from periphery to core

148
Q

What is the guns. germs and steel theory?

A

(Diamond) Eurasia: East to West. Africa and Americas: North to South

149
Q

What are neoevolutionist theories?

A

(White and Lenski) Emphasis on technology and builds from Marx, Weber, Durkheim etc

150
Q

What is cultural group selection?

A

(Boyd and Richardson) Cultural norms and natural selection

151
Q

What is the Gini coefficient?

A

Measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent income/wealth distribution of a nation’s residents. It is a commonly used quantitative measurement of inequality

152
Q

What study looks at inequality through the ages with human life expectancy?

A

Cumulative survivorship probability for three non-agricultural populations (!Kung-Southern Africa/Ache-Paraguay/Yanamani-Brazil)

153
Q

What was Mudler et al’s research?

A

Egalitarian hunter-gatherers? Data from 22 small scale societies (5 hunter gatherers) and measured 3 kinds of wealth (embodied/relational/material), The Gini coefficient for hunter gatherer communities was estimated to be .25

154
Q

What is the Gini coefficient like after agriculture?

A

Mulder’s analysis from 8 small scale farming communities estimated at .48. Scheidel et al analysis of data from Roman Empire estimate .43. Questionable whether slaves where considered properly, skewing results

155
Q

What is the McKeown thesis?

A

Mortality by tuberculosis. Population growth since late 18th century mostly due to improvements in economic conditions

156
Q

What are three explanations for the relationship between wealth and income inequality, and health inequality?

A

Reverse causation (health affects wealth and income), confounding factor (eg genetic factors affect both), wealth/income affects health

157
Q

What are the different theories on whether wealth and income affect health?

A

Materialist (ability to afford healthy food etc). Behavioural/cultural (eg alcohol consumption). Psycho-social (eg work stress). Macro-social/political economy (eg poor provision of social housing (Kings Fund)). Life course explanations (eg effects of all explanations in the family on a child’s development)

158
Q

What are the macronutrients?

A

Carbohydrates, protein, fat, fibre and water

159
Q

What are carbohydrates for?

A

Fuel and other functions eg enabling fat metabolism

160
Q

What is protein for?

A

Structure and functions (high turnover)

161
Q

What is fat for?

A

Broken down into glucose

162
Q

What is fibre for?

A

Some are digested and some are not

163
Q

What is water for?

A

Medium for chemical reactions. It is essential

164
Q

What are the micronutrients?

A

Minerals and vitamins

165
Q

What are minerals?

A

Chemical elements required in small quantities eg Na/Cl in salt necessary for maintaining blood pressure and nerve function

166
Q

What are vitamins?

A

Organic compounds with a variety of functions, eg B vitamins catalyse energy metabolism

167
Q

What are reference intakes?

A

Based on average sized woman doing average amount of physical activity, but people vaqry

168
Q

What are dietary reference values (DRV)?

A

Takes account of variation-more relevant to a population perspective

169
Q

What is the national diet and nutrition survey?

A

Shows % people below LRNI for many micronutrients. Should all be less than 2.5% if population has healthy consumption. Magnesium and Selenium are particularly low for adolescent girls

170
Q

What happens if vitamin A is deficient?

A

Vision and immune function issues. Deficiency in 1/3 under 5, and kills over 600 thousand every year

171
Q

What are low levels of magnesium associated with?

A

Chronic conditions such as hypertension, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes

172
Q

What is hidden hunger?

A

Asymptomatic or difficult to detect micronutrient deficiency

173
Q

What is malnutrition?

A

Can be over or undernutrition. Leads to a ‘dual burden’

174
Q

What are the leading causes of death in modern times?

A

Coronary/Ischaemic heart diseases and type 2 diabetes which are linked and sociall patterned. CHD overtaken by dementia due to decline

175
Q

How can type 2 diabetes be understood?

A

Need to understand insulin resistance. Inulin produced by pancreas beta cells and acts on cells to enable uptake of glucose from blood

176
Q

What is the difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes?

A

Type 1 is not enough insulin, and type 2 is that cells stop being able to use insulin

177
Q

What causes insulin resistance?

A

Largely due to obesity (BMI>30). The role of sugar is controversial. IR-high insulin/glucose in blood-breakdown of sugar regulation

178
Q

What is the link between diabetes and heart disease?

A

Glucose damages nerve cells/blood vessels in circulatory system directly. CHD mainly caused by atherosclerosis. Glucose causes inflammation, increasing risk of atherosclerotic plaque

179
Q

What is cortisol?

A

The main endocrine hormone and is produced by adrenal glands

180
Q

What is the mortality in civil service graph?

A

Adjusted for age and other risk factors to reduce influence of confounding factors. There is a gradient in mortality even in middle class. Nutrition cannot explain this. Largely thought to be due to cardiovascular disease

181
Q

How are social animals affected by social environment?

A

In social animals, the way individuals experience their environment is largely influenced by social environment. Access to food/mates. Social life is stressful, and stress is experienced by different animals in different ways

182
Q

What does cortisol do?

A

Reduce hormone growth, alter immune response, increase blood pressure, increase fibrinogen, increase low density lipoproteins, increase central fat deposition, and mobilises sugars and fats for energy

183
Q

What can social support do?

A

It can influence physical health outcomes

184
Q

What are two main families of mechanism of social support?

A

Behavioural pathways and stress appraisal

185
Q

What influences self regulation?

A

Emotional support from belonging to a group

186
Q

What is the job strain model?

A

Job strain (risk of physical illness) = high job demands and low job latitude

187
Q

What is the reward imbalance model?

A

Job imbalance risk of physical illness) = high effort and low job rewards

188
Q

What is psychological demand vs decision control?

A

Low control+high demand=adverse outcome

189
Q

What is neighbourhood deprivation and binge drinking?

A

Deprivation predicts binge drinking. Due to cultural norms, pressures, pr lack of social cohesion (none are mutually exclusive)

190
Q

How is strength of social relationships a predictor of mortality?

A

In comparison with other risk factors, it is a good predictor. Mortality risk and giving or receiving social support

191
Q

What is the life course effect?

A

Highlights link between the psychological and physical. Difficult to determine if other social confounds play a role. Relationship between childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. Also long-lasting health benefits of intensive daycare

192
Q

What determines healthy development?

A

Good nutrition, physical activity, immunological exposures, good social status

193
Q

What are world stats on undernourishment?

A

11% of world is undernourished. 19% in sub-saharan Africa, and 7% in latin America

194
Q

What are world stats on over-nourishment?

A

In USA 68% adults and 29% children. UK 52% adults and 27% children. India 22% adults and 8% children

195
Q

What is the dual burden of malnourishment?

A

Increased wealth leading to problems of over-nutrition alongside under-nutrition in BRIC countries (health costs are enormous, especially for developing countries

196
Q

How is nutritional insecurity dealt with in the UK?

A

Eg Trussell Trust, a charity with a goal to reduce UK hunger/poverty

197
Q

How much does obesity cost in the UK?

A

£4.2 billion/year treating obesity related diseases. Primarily type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular diseases

198
Q

What is energy needed for?

A

Growth, maintenance eg BMR/physical activity/immune challenges, reproduction

199
Q

How much energy is in one calorie?

A

1kcal is 4.2kj

200
Q

How many calories are in 1g of protein/fat/carbs

A

1g protein=4kcal, 1g fat=9kcal, 1g carb=4kcal

201
Q

What is basal metabolic rate?

A

Number of calories you’d burn “if you stayed in bed all day”-15xweight+692(kcal/day)-secondary adjustments for age, sex, height

202
Q

What are the daily calorie requirements of each macro/micro nutrient?

A

330g carbs, 100g protein, 75g fat, 2000g water, <300mg vitamins, 5-10g minerals. Calorie requirements vary with age

203
Q

How do you measure nutritional status?

A

Anthropometry

204
Q

What are anthropometry measures?

A

Height, weight, BMI, skin fold thickness, mid-upper arm circumference, waist and hip circumferences, waist to hip ratio

205
Q

What BMI in adults is considered to be chronically malnourished?

A

<18.5

206
Q

What is the formula for BMI?

A

weight (kg) divided by height squared (m squared)

207
Q

What are anthropometry measures in infants?

A

Birth weight, ponderal index (body weight divided by length), head circumference, abdominal circumference

208
Q

What is anthropometry in children?

A

Measure children to assess standards of growth and health

209
Q

What are growth standards for children?

A

Has been revised over the years (Tanner). Percentiles: z scores

210
Q

What is stunting and wasting?

A

Stunting is low height for age, and wasting is low weight for height

211
Q

What is good social status?

A

Most sources equate stunting to poor nutrition and infectious diseases, but not social status however there is supporting data for social status. Height is a marker of social status in humans but could be confounded with better wealth/nutrition

212
Q

What is nutritional supplementation?

A

Advocated to reduced stunting, however Hermanussen et al said it increased weight, not height. There are nutritional or sanitation interventions to improve stunting in children but have limited effects

213
Q

What is nutritional stress in Europe?

A

Hermanussen et al-historical data in old german medical journals

214
Q

What is the correlation between nutrition and height?

A

Nutrition is essential for growth but final height may be determined by social inequalities

215
Q

How necessary is physical activity?

A

Need to be physically active to develop properly. Humans have evolved to be much more active than ape relatives

216
Q

What is evidence that humans have evolved to be more active?

A

Leg muscles 50% larger in humans. More slow twitch muscle fibres (reduce fatigue). More haemoglobin to carry oxygen to muscles. Higher metabolic rate. Require significantly less sleep. Brain responds well to exercise (reward). Palaeorunners?

217
Q

What dies Liberman say about physical activity?

A

Our species evolved to be endurance runners based on a number of skeletal features

218
Q

What are human activity level trends?

A

Sedentary behaviour is increasing. There are also inequalities in physical exercise. Traditionally the poor worked very hard but now it is reversed in developed countries

219
Q

What are immunological exposures?

A

Global epidemiological transition with decline in infectious diseases

220
Q

Why do we need exposure?

A

For development, to educate our immune system to stop over-reaction

221
Q

What are immunological trade-offs?

A

Hygiene hypothesis and old friends’ hypothesis

222
Q

What is the hygiene hypothesis?

A

Modern world is too sanitised to our immune systems are underdeveloped. Leads to dysfunction and increase in auto-immune disorders

223
Q

What is the old friends’ hypothesis?

A

No longer exposed to parasites

224
Q

What is the evolution of ageing?

A

Neoteny is appealing (Gould-Mickey Mouse). Old age us not adaptive/no adaptive pressure to find the elderly attractive or to provide care, which is the opposite with babies and children, and so elderly must devise strategies to ensure respect/care

225
Q

What is a theory on why we age?

A

Kikwood’s disposable soma theory

226
Q

What is disposable soma theory?

A

Natural selection favours reproduction over bodily maintenance. Ageing occurs through accumlation of random somatic damage. Life span variance may be due to varying levels of somatic maintenance and repair. Systems decline with age/immune system weakens/loss of muscle mass/slower metabolism/increasing wear and tear. Bathtub curve of hypothetical failure rate vs time

227
Q

What is maximum lifespan?

A

Supposed oldest person was Jeane Calment 122. Max life span has increased across time as health improves but there may be a max. 103 in 1798 then 117 in 2018

228
Q

What are examples of primate longevity?

A

Gregoire (Africa) 66 and Auntie Rose (Uganda) 60

229
Q

What is the demography of ageing?

A

Mean age at death determined by infant/child. Population pyramids show demography

230
Q

What is demographic transmission theory?

A

Late 18th century=1st transition. Preindustrial to industrial (Europe)

231
Q

What are demographic and epidemiological transitions?

A

Fertility/mortality both decline (family planning). Decline in infectious diseases but replacement with chronic diseases

232
Q

What is an example of epidemiological transition?

A

Proportion of elderly increasing

233
Q

What does Marmot show?

A

Life expectancy varies within countries, illustrate by tube map

234
Q

What is the correlation between ageing and health?

A

Does longer life just mean more years with illness?

235
Q

What are DALYs?

A

Disability adjusted life years

236
Q

What is the cost of ageing?

A

NHS costs=53% more in >65s in 2030 than in 2000

237
Q

What is elder abuse?

A

Abused by offspring/spouse. Children abused by parents (relatives=main abusers). Can be abused physically, sexually, emotionally, financially, health care fraud, neglect, abandonment

238
Q

What are risk factors for abuse by home carers?

A

Inability to cope/depression/lack of support/substance abuse/negative perceptions

239
Q

What are risk factors for abuse by institutional carers?

A

Stress/port training/over burdened/unsuited to job/poor work conditions

240
Q

What are risk factors for the patient?

A

Frailty/severity of condition/social isolation/relationship to carer/financial status/history of domestic volence

241
Q

What is elder self abuse/neglect?

A

2 million cases each year in the USA

242
Q

What is sex?

A

Biological/physical characteristics

243
Q

What is gender?

A

Socially constructed-what given society considers appropriate

244
Q

What is life history theory?

A

Energy has to be divided between growth, maintenance and reproduction

245
Q

What is sexual selection theory?

A

Female reproductive energy into producing babies. Male reproductive energy into finding a mate/acquiring resources/protecting mate and offspring

246
Q

What is the cost of reproduction?

A

80,000 calories to maintain pregnancy to term. Lactation requires roughly 500 extra calories a day. Total weight gain of 27.5lbs. Sex act is 25% more costly for men

247
Q

What are pregnancy costs?

A

Can use mechanisms to avert pregnancy and can compensate cost of pregnancy to some degree (slow basal metabolic rate, shorten gestation length, adjust blood flow to uterus/placenta). Iron deficiencies associated with menstruation and pregnancy. Women lose 1mg iron per cycle

248
Q

What are male costs?

A

Testosterone associated with higher rate of growth, higher aggression, lower immune system (Wingfield-challenge hypothesis)

249
Q

What is the Wingfield challenge hypothesis?

A

Trade-off’s faced by males in allocating resources to mating and parenting. Underpinned by mediating testosterone levels. Developed theory in studying birds

250
Q

What is male mortality?

A

Males die faster and younger. More males are born to compensate

251
Q

Why are males costly?

A

Trivers Willard hypothesis-mothers only invest in sons if have good access to resources. If not, they will invest in daughters-tested in red deer in Scotland

252
Q

How do males take risks?

A

Males (15-25) are likely to take more risks

253
Q

What are gender differences in labour?

A

Hunter (male) vs gatherer (female), which probably reflects constraints of pregnancy and lactation

254
Q

What is the division of labour?

A

More pronounced differences emerge with development of hoe agriculture. Development of patriarchal societies. Females seen as inferior: biologically, intellectually, economically and emotionally

255
Q

What are the consequences of patriarchy?

A

Loss of opportunities/control/health-women’s education/early marriage/women’s issues

256
Q

What is child neglect by gender?

A

Selective neglect usually targeted at females

257
Q

What is mate guarding and health?

A

All have serious health consequences. Who to blame-traditions have become entrenched. Women become willing participants in many cultural traditions

258
Q

What are reproductive burdens?

A

Women bear main burden for contraception. Women’s cycles are much more complex than male reproductive function

259
Q

How has gender affected clinical trials?

A

Women mostly absent in USA before 2004. 8/10 prescription drugs withdrawn from US markets by 2000 due to different gender responses

260
Q

What are gender differences in employment?

A

Women have less values jobs or inequality in pay, plus higher risk of sexual harassment at work

261
Q

How are women sexualised?

A

Objectification, and unrealistic ideals of beauty, but is this changing?

262
Q

How does domestic violence affect women?

A

Affects 1 in 3 women worldwide. Physical/psychological/sexual. Health costs to women+legal fees+housing etc

263
Q

What are gender gaps in health?

A

Eg higher male suicide and higher female mental health issues

264
Q

How do African-American men demonstrate ethnicity and health?

A

Higher incidence of prostate cancer, more advanced stage at diagnosis and higher mortality. 25% less likely to receive treatment than white men. Odds ratio decreased with severity of cancer rating

265
Q

What is ethnicity?

A

English ethnic categories (ONS 2011) white, mixed ethnicity, asian, black and other

266
Q

How does migration affect ethnicity?

A

Immigrants. Ancestors come from Germany, Belgium, France and Scandinavia

267
Q

What does Leslie et al say?

A

Fine scale genetic structure of British population

268
Q

What were earliest modern humans in Britain like?

A

Possibly had dark skin and originally oriented from Middle East

269
Q

What is race?

A

Highly criticised as a concept. US use race rather than ethnic categories (are such classifications meaningful?). There are problems defining race as many traits are continuous. Races or racism-more genetic variation in populations than between

270
Q

What are examples of human genetic diversity?

A

Skin colours (cancers), lactose intolerance, haemoglobinopathies (sickle cell, thalassemias, morality, anaemias), homozygotes and heterozygotes. CVD risks differ across ethnic groups in UK (South Asians generally higher risk

271
Q

What was the SABRE cohort study?

A

Study in London compared white and Indian. CVD mortality higher in Indians. Controlled for number of risks in models, but were still unexplained factors

272
Q

What are health characteristics of South Asians?

A

Have persistent low birth weight, preservation of fat overlying central organs, more likely to have central adoposity in later life, linked to higher risk for metabolic disorders

273
Q

What is ‘thrifty phenotype’?

A

Association between low birth weight and later life health. Fetal programming. Low birth weight of African Americans: an intergenerational effect of slavery-Jasienska

274
Q

What is the health migrant effect?

A

Some data suggest USA hispanics have lower infant mortality, lower mortality from cancer/stroke/hip fractures despite being low SES

275
Q

What are reasons for the hispanic paradox?

A

Healthier people migrate, stronger kinship/social support, less stress

276
Q

What is racial medicine?

A

Medicine can be tailored, due to different predispositions and responses

277
Q

What are pros of racial medicine?

A

If there are differences, there can be improvement. Targeted rather than ‘one size fits all’

278
Q

What are cons of racial medicine?

A

May lead to distribution inequalities. Risk of confusing genetic variability with other confounds. Commercial interests may override science

279
Q

What is an example of racial medicine?

A

BiDil, however it was criticised

280
Q

What did the invention of fire cause?

A

New hazard for humans and start of atmospheric pollution

281
Q

How is outdoor pollution measured?

A

Using PM 2.5 particles (_

282
Q

What is outdoor pollution?

A

Reduces ambient visibility/causes smog. Mostly caused by human activities. US EPA chart outlines levels of acceptable and dangerous pollution. Can cause ischaemic heart disease, stroke, CPODs, ALRIs and lung cancer

283
Q

What are stats on outdoor pollution?

A

4.2 mill died in 2016 due to it. Recommended limit is 25.4ng/m3. >90% of world population live in areas with air pollution over the limit (Africa affected by Saharan dust). In the UK 16335 deaths in 2012 from outdoor pollution, cities most affected eg London reached legal 2018 limit in February

284
Q

What are environmental inequalities?

A

Does not discriminate. In large cities smog is everywhere, but may concentrate in places. USA case study. African-Americans and Hispanics exposed to far more than they produce while whites are exposed to 17% less than they produce. Housing locations are mostly responsible for this

285
Q

What causes indoor pollution?

A

> 33% world population still use biomass to cook/for heating. Over 50% use ‘solid fuel’ if coal is included

286
Q

What are stats on indoor pollution?

A

1.6 mill deaths each year due to smoke-related morbidity from cooking. It is the 4th biggest global killer. Women and children most affected. Main problems caused is acute lower respiratory infections (ALRIs)

287
Q

What is RESPIRE?

A

Randomised exposure study of pollution indoors and respiratory effects. In San Marcos, Guatemala

288
Q

What were the results of RESPIRE?

A

Higher exposure to CO in open hearth homes. 30% reduction in severe pneumonia among children with household stoves. Less exposure to carbon monoxides. 4/11 reached statistical significance

289
Q

What is the problem with plastics?

A

8.3 bill tons produced by 2017. UN conference in 2017 agreed to stop plastic waste entering oceans

290
Q

Where do a lot of plastics end up?

A

North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. Great Pacific Garbage Patch (East and West). East patch=2x larger than size of Texas

291
Q

How is ocean life affected by plastics?

A

All sea life and deep ocean trenches are polluted with plastic. They are ingested and deadly for many animals, and degrade slowly. They sequester in fat tissue and are endocrine disruptors (structure mimics natural hormones)

292
Q

What is a chemical in plastics that has been said to cause problems?

A

Bisphenol A

293
Q

How is the Arctic affected?

A

It is now one of the most contaminated places on Earth. Inuit have higher levels of PCBs etc in breast milk

University Year 1 (12 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions