International Relations 1918-39 - Tension in Europe in the 1930s

Question 1

What did the League of Nations do to try and keep peace in the 1930s?

Answer 1

The League was involved in a number of disputes in the 1930s between different nations, in an effort to keep world peace.

Question 2

What disputes did the League of Nations get involved in during the 1930s to keep the peace?

Answer 2

The League got involved in two key disputes in the 1930s, and these dominated much of their work. These were:
- A dispute between Japan and China, known as the Manchurian Crisis, that took place between 1931 and 1933.
- A dispute between Italy and Abyssinia, in 1935.

Question 3

What actions did the League of Nations to deal with disputes and keep the peace during the 1930s?

Answer 3

The League used a range of actions when dealing with these disputes in the 1930s including:
- Investigations and special commissions.
- Moral condemnations and economic sanctions.
- They also held a conference to encourage disarmament in 1932

Question 4

Why did the League of Nations get involved in dealing with disputes to keep the peace in the 1930s?

Answer 4

As many countries began to turn away from international co-operation a number of leaders with aggressive foreign policies came to power, such as Hitler and Mussolini.

Question 5

What was the Mukden incident?

Answer 5

The Japanese had ambitions to take over Manchuria, and used the Mukden incident as an excuse to launch an invasion.

Question 6

Why did the Mukden incident happen?

Answer 6

Japan wanted to expand its borders into Manchuria but needed a reason to do so; the Mukden incident proved perfect.

Question 7

Where did the Mukden incident happen?

Answer 7

The Mukden incident happened on the South Manchurian railway.

Question 8

What were the key events in the Mukden incident?

Answer 8

There were 5 key events:
- On 18th September, 1931, there was an explosion on a Japanese-owned railway in South Manchuria.
- The Japanese blamed the Chinese, saying the train had been attacked by Chinese soldiers. However, the Japanese had set off the explosion themselves.
- The Chinese government denied any involvement, stating all its soldiers were asleep at the time.
- In ‘retaliation’, the Kwantung army invaded Manchuria.
- Japan renamed Manchuria as Manchukuo, and put former Chinese emperor Pu Yi in charge. He was a puppet ruler, controlled by the Japanese army

Question 9

Who was involved in the Mukden incident?

Answer 9

The Kwantung, or Japanese army, were behind the Mukden incident.

Question 10

What were the results of the Mukden incident?

Answer 10

This Mukden incident resulted in Japan invading Manchuria and triggering an international crisis.

Question 11

What was the Kwantung army?

Answer 11

The Kwantung army was the Japanese army.

Question 12

What was the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 12

In 1931 the League faced its most serious challenge yet, when Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria.

Question 13

Where is Manchuria?

Answer 13

Manchuria is a province of north-east China. It had a sparse population but was rich in minerals, agricultural land and forestry. It bordered Korea, which was controlled by Japan.

Question 14

Why did Japan invade Manchuria in 1931?

Answer 14

• Japan had suffered badly in the Depression, as it had few natural resources and its main export was silk.
• Japan exported much of its silk to rich countries, like America, but the impact of the Depression meant people were not buying luxury goods. By 1932 silk was worth one fifth of its value in 1920. Production and employment had fallen by 30% by 1930.
• Japan started to look for land and resources elsewhere to minimise the impact of the depression.
• Japan already had large industries and a railway line through Manchuria, and guards to protect it. Japan was worried China might expel Japanese industry.
• The Japanese government wanted to take the land to upset its old enemy, Russia, and use that as a way to distract people from its domestic problems.
• Japan wanted to seize the opportunity while the Japanese army was growing stronger and Chinese power was weakening.
• In September 1931 there was an explosion on the Manchurian railway in Mukden. This is believed to have been set up by the Japanese army, but the Japanese blamed Chinese bandits. This became known as the Mukden Incident.
• The Japanese army was stronger than its civilian government and took control, marching into Manchuria and taking over.

Question 15

What happened when Japan invaded Manchuria?

Answer 15

By March 1932 the Japanese army had invaded the whole province of Manchuria and renamed it Manchukuo. The Chinese emperor, Pu Yi, was installed as a puppet leader controlled by the Japanese.

Question 16

Why was the League of Nations reluctant to act over the Manchurian crisis at first?

Answer 16

• Many argued that Japan owned Manchuria and was entitled to take control. China had previously agreed economic rights in the area.
• China and Japan were seen as a long way away from the League’s headquarters in Geneva. Britain and France felt it was too far away to be a concern to them.
• Japan was a powerful member of the League, there was a lot of confusion surrounding the Mukden Incident and there was a convincing argument that China had attacked Japan first.
• China was very disorganised and some people thought it was a good thing Japan had invaded the region. It was seen by some as protection against communism.

Question 17

How did the League respond to the invasion of Manchuria?

Answer 17

• At first, the League issued a moral condemnation and told Japan to remove its troops. The Japanese refused and there was not much the League could do.
• The next tool at their disposal was to issue economic sanctions. However, Japan’s biggest trading relationship was with the USA, who was not a member of the League. This would therefore be pointless.
• Geographically, Manchuria was far away from the League’s more powerful members. The nearest powerful country was the Soviet Union, but it was not a member of the League and could not be called upon for help.
• The League could use military action but members would not send their armies as they could not afford to fight someone else’s battle so far away in the midst of a depression.
• The League didn’t want to do nothing, so it appointed Lord Lytton to lead a commission of inquiry into Manchuria.

Question 18

What did the Lytton Commission do in Manchuria?

Answer 18

The Lytton Commission spent six weeks investigating in the province and concluded the invasion was not justified. It presented its findings in the Lytton report.

Question 19

What decisions did the League of Nations reach about Manchuria?

Answer 19

The League considered the findings in February 1933 and accepted them by 42 to 1, but failed to impose economic or military sanctions. By this point the crisis had lasted for 18 months and many people criticised the League for being too slow to act.

Question 20

What were the results of the Manchurian Crisis?

Answer 20

• In response to the League’s judgement, Japan left the organisation and continued to occupy Manchuria.
• The League looked ineffective and slow.
• In 1933 Japan invaded the Chinese province of Jehol, and launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937.

Question 21

What was the significance of the Manchurian crisis for the League of Nations?

Answer 21

The Manchurian crisis was significant because the League had failed. One of its members had broken the rules, but the League was slow to react and did little. The crisis demonstrated the League was weak and indecisive, and that powerful countries could get away with aggression.

Question 22

What did the League of Nations do to encourage disarmament?

Answer 22

The League of Nations was committed to encouraging its members to disarm by reducing their military forces and weapons.

Question 23

Why was the League of Nations committed to disarmament?

Answer 23

• One of the League’s main aims was to encourage members to disarm and to reduce their weapons.
• The idea was that countries would be less likely to attack each other, and more likely to discuss and settle their problems peacefully if they had fewer weapons to start a war.

Question 24

How did the League of Nations try to encourage disarmament?

Answer 24

• There were several failed attempts to start talks in 1919 and 1929.
• In 1932 the first meeting took place in Geneva at a conference called the World Disarmament Conference.

Question 25

What problems did the League of Nations have with encouraging disarmament?

Answer 25

• Britain did not want to disarm as it had to control its empire.
• France did not want to disarm. Its position was complex for the League. They insisted on disarmament for Germany, but refused to disarm themselves, as they argued they needed to protect themselves from German aggression.

Question 26

What was the Abyssinian Crisis?

Answer 26

The Abyssinian Crisis occurred from 1935 to 1936, when Italy invaded the independent country of Abyssinia in East Africa.

Question 27

Where is Abyssinia?

Answer 27

Abyssinia is now called Ethiopia and is located on the north-east coast of Africa. In 1935 it was surrounded by British, French and Italian colonies, but remained independent.

Question 28

Why did Italy invade Abyssinia?

Answer 28

• Italy owned Italian Somaliland and Eritrea, territories on either side of Abyssinia.
• In 1896, the Abyssinians defeated the Italians at Adowa. The Italians were humiliated and wanted revenge.
• Abyssinia was rich in natural resources and had fertile land for livestock which would help the Italian economy.
• Mussolini was seeking glory and conquest, attempting to bring the Roman Empire back to Italy. He didn’t think Britain and France could argue when they had such vast empires themselves.
• Italy felt sure of victory. It had a modern army while Abyssinian soldiers were armed with spears and arrows.
• Mussolini was confident he could invade Abyssinia without the League taking action, based on his previous actions in Corfu in 1923 and the League’s failure in Manchuria.
• Mussolini was confident Britain and France wouldn’t stop him establishing an empire in Africa. He felt Britain and France would do anything to keep Italy as an ally against Germany, especially after the Stresa Front of 1935.

Question 29

What happened at the invasion in the Abyssinian Crisis?

Answer 29

• In December 1934 there was a border incident at Wal Wal in Abyssinia. Italian soldiers clashed with Abyssinians on Mussolini’s commands; two Italians and 150 Abyssinians were killed.
• The League wanted to get involved but found it hard to stop Mussolini. Both nations were members of the League, but Mussolini was set on war.
• In January 1935 the French foreign minister, Pierre Laval, met with Mussolini and made a top secret deal - the Hoare-Laval Pact.
• Italy began to build up forces in Eritrea and Somaliland. In October 1935 an attack was launched involving 250,000 men.
• The Abyssinian emperor, Haile Selassie, appealed for help.
• The League next issued Italy with a moral condemnation, which Mussolini ignored

Question 30

What were Italy’s international relations like before the Abyssinian Crisis?

Answer 30

Before the crisis of 1935, Italy had worked with Britain and France in the war, the peace conference, and the League. In April 1935 the countries formed the Stresa Pact against German aggression.

Question 31

How did the League respond to the invasion of Abyssinia?

Answer 31

• The League placed economic sanctions on Italy.
• However, it didn’t sanction oil, coal, iron or steel; essential resources for war.
• The Suez Canal, which was owned by Britain and France, provided a short-cut from the Mediterranean to East Africa but wasn’t closed. Britain and France didn’t want to risk conflict with Italy, but this allowed it to build up men and supplies near Abyssinia more quickly.

Question 32

How did Britain and France respond to the Italian invasion of Abyssinia?

Answer 32

• Britain and France wanted to avoid embarrassment over Abyssinia, so they began to secretly negotiate with Italy without consulting Haile Selassie, the Abyssinian emperor.
• The British public wanted to protect Abyssinia, and British politicians made strong speeches about standing up to aggression.
• However, in secret, the British and French foreign ministers negotiated the Hoare-Laval Pact with Mussolini. This would give two thirds of Abyssinia to Italy, leaving the Abyssinians with only the mountainous regions.
• The details of the Hoare-Laval Pact were leaked and the public was horrified. The plan was dropped, but Italy continued to invade Abyssinia.

Question 33

What were the results of the Abyssinian Crisis?

Answer 33

• Italy completed the invasion of Abyssinia with the capture of Addis Ababa in May 1936.
• Sanctions on Italy were lifted in July 1936.
• The Abyssinian Crisis proved that Britain and France prioritised other concerns above the principles of the League.
• Adolf Hitler observed the lack of decisive action in response to aggression. This may have informed his future decisions.
• Italy was offended by the imposition of sanctions, and left the League in 1937.
• The League of Nations never recovered its reputation or influence.

Question 34

Why did the League fail in Abyssinia?

Answer 34

• Britain and France were too concerned about upsetting Mussolini and losing a potential ally against Germany. They didn’t close down the Suez Canal, even though this could have stopped Mussolini.
• The economic trade sanctions against Italy were too slow and were limited by the non-membership of wealthy trading states, such as the USA. Self-interest from the League’s members also prevented a ban on some goods.
• The Hoare-Laval Pact again demonstrated that Britain and France were looking after their own interests.
• The League also banned members from selling arms to Abyssinia, so the country could not even defend itself against Italy.

Question 35

Why did the League’s economic sanctions fail in the Abyssinian Crisis?

Answer 35

• Britain didn’t want to sanction its coal exports to Italy as this might cause unemployment for British miners.
• Even if oil sales to Italy had been stopped by the League, the USA would have continued to sell to it as a non-member.
• Mussolini stated afterwards that a ban on coal and oil sales to Italy would have stopped his invasion.

Question 36

What was the significance of the Abyssinian Crisis to the League of Nations?

Answer 36

• Britain and France had proved they were more interested in their own national concerns than protecting the aims of the League.
• Small countries knew the League could provide them with no real protection from aggressive countries.
• The League lost all respect and its reputation was damaged beyond repair. Although it continued to run, it was no longer considered a serious force in international relations.

Question 37

What was the Hoare-Laval Pact?

Answer 37

The Hoare-Laval Pact was a secret agreement between Britain, France and Italy during the Abyssinian Crisis.

Question 38

Who was involved in the Hoare-Laval pact?

Answer 38

Britain and France’s foreign ministers, Samuel Hoare and Pierre Laval, negotiated with Italy.

Question 39

What agreements were made under the Hoare-Laval pact?

Answer 39

• Areas of Abyssinia would be given to Italy.
• Abyssinians would lose 66% of their land and would keep only the mountainous regions, while Italy would gain the fertile farmland.

Question 40

Why was the Hoare-Laval pact agreed?

Answer 40

Britain and France made this agreement with Italy in secret because they were fearful of an alliance between Mussolini and Hitler.

Question 41

What were the results of the Hoare-Laval pact?

Answer 41

Information about the pact was leaked to the press and the public reaction was one of anger. Laval and Hoare were made to resign and the League’s reputation was damaged beyond repair.

Question 42

What was significant about the Hoare-Laval pact?

Answer 42

• It showed that Britain and France were willing to undermine the League to protect their own interests.
• The League was supposed to protect smaller countries, but Italy was given the rights to Abyssinian land after its aggressive actions.

Question 43

What caused the League of Nations to collapse in the 1930s?

Answer 43

The League of Nations ceased to be a peace-keeping organisation after its failures in Manchuria and Abyssinia.

Question 44

What events led to the collapse of the League of Nations?

Answer 44

The influence of the League had been declining since the 1920s, when it failed to deal with events in places such as Corfu, Upper Silesia, Vilna, and Bulgaria. However, it was the events in Manchuria and Abyssinia that triggered the collapse of the League.

Question 45

Why did events in Manchuria lead to the collapse of the League of Nations?

Answer 45

• The League was unable to deal with the effects of the Depression and to help its member nations. The Japanese economy was crushed and there was nothing the League could do to support them.
• The League was powerless without an army. Japan did not do what the League demanded, and there was nothing the League could do about it.
• Economic sanctions did not work. If the League were to impose sanctions Japan would have still been able to trade with the USA, so sanctions were pointless.
• The League lacked important world leaders such as the USA and the USSR. Many Europeans felt Manchuria was not their neighbour so not their problem, and sanctions were pointless since America was Japan’s main trading partner.
• Britain and France dominated the League. They failed to act quickly to the events in Manchuria because they did not see it to be in their interests, as it was so far away.

Question 46

Why did events in Abyssinia lead to the collapse of the League of Nations?

Answer 46

• The League was unable to deal with the effects of the Depression. Italy’s motives in the invasion lay in the effects of the Depression, and the League was unable to help them recover economically.
• The League was powerless without an army. Mussolini used chemical weapons on the Abyssinians, and there was no member that would commit its army to defend Abyssinia.
• Economic sanctions did not work. If the League were to impose sanctions Japan would have still been able to trade with the USA, so sanctions were pointless.
• The League lacked important world leaders such as the USA and Germany. Britain and France were desperate to keep Mussolini as an ally against Germany, and economic sanctions were pointless as Italy could still trade with the USA.
• Britain and France dominated the League. Mussolini was empowered to act by the fact that Britain and France had huge empires themselves; and both countries failed to take key actions such as closing the Suez canal. They also struck secret deals in order to protect their own interests

Question 47

Why did the League of Nations collapse?

Answer 47

• In the short term, the Depression created a climate in which international cooperation declined, while a rise in nationalism led to situations whereby peace-keeping was needed. The League was not able to cope with the effects of the Depression.
• When dealing with international disputes the League did not have many options at its disposal. One option was economic sanctions, and time and again these had proved ineffective.
• The League was structurally weak. The absence of powerful countries such as the USA undermined its role on a number of occasions.
• A further structural weakness was its slow and inefficient decision-making. For example, it look over 18 months for Lord Lytton to report his findings on the Mukden incident in Manchuria.
• The work of the League was consistently undermined by the self interests of dominant nations such as Britain and France. Both saw the League, from its creation, as little more than a place to discuss ideas.

Question 48

What was the impact of the collapse of the League of Nations?

Answer 48

• It had a big impact on international relations.
• There was no longer anyone to police the world, and dictators were free to continue with their aggressive foreign policy.
• It led to the Second World War.

Question 49

What did the League of Nations do after 1936?

Answer 49

After 1936 the League really existed in name only. Its reputation was destroyed and it played no part in international relations.

Question 50

What did the League of Nations do about Hitler after 1936?

Answer 50

The causes of the Second World War were a complex combination of multiple factors. The League, however, had shown Hitler that aggressive nations could go unchecked.

Question 51

What did the League of Nations do after 1936?

Answer 51

There were no council or assembly meetings of the League during the Second World War. It met for the final time in April 1946.

Question 52

What were the contributions of the League of Nations’ commissions after 1936?

Answer 52

Ideas such as the Permanent Court of Justice and International Labour Organisation were built into the United Nations.
The Health Organisation became the World Health Organisation and continues to this day.