Internal Factors Affecting Education Flashcards
What was Becker’s labelling theory?
AO1
- Pupils are constantly being assessed and consequently are labelled and placed into particular classes based on the label they have been given
- Labels can be positive or negative
- Positive labels: e.g. ‘smart’ children are put in top sets, given best opportunities, special treatment. Student starts to believe they are smart leading to halo effect
- Negative labels: ‘dumb’ students are put in lower set, entered for lower tiers. Student starts to believe they are dumb/ lose confidence. Less motivated to work hard - get bad grades. Pupils and friends in same position reject school values leading to an anti-school subculture
What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?
AO1
When teacher expectations are translated into actual outcomes. The student lives out the predictions of them - for the working class this means underachievement
How can we analyse Becker?
AO3
- Teachers may attach a positive/negative label to certain social groups - can be used to explain differences in educational achievement between different social groups
- This knowledge tells us if we start changing teacher perceptions of students, we can change results
How can we evaluate Becker?
AO3
- It is up to the student to decide if they accept or reject the label
- Willis not all students passively accept their label - some people choose to fail and actively reject school values
What was Hargreaves’ theory?
AO1
Used an overt participant observation and unstructured interviews.
Came to the conclusion that there are 3 steps of labelling:
1. Speculation: teacher generates predictions based on pupils characteristics to help formulate labels e.g. black students more likely to be labelled as troublemakers
2. Elaboration: teacher tests hypothesis of student and looks to see if it is confirmed or contradicted e.g. gives black student particular task to see if they get on with working or misbehave
3. Stabilisation: results from test solidify and now label is attached to student. The teacher will now feel like they know who the student is and what will make them misbehave. But this is more based on stereotype than evidence. Student may internalise their behaviour e.g. teacher know knows that black student will misbehave - may not allow them on school trips, change exam tiers, etc
What was Rosenthall and Jacobson’s study?
AO1
Pygmalion in the Classroom:
- studied Californian elementary school
- tested all children with an IQ test - told teachers 20% of the students had high IQs and were ‘spurters’ who would do well. These ‘spurters’ had been chosen at random.
- returned after a year and found that those who had been labelled as spurters had an IQ increase while the non-spurters had decreased
- they had become what they’d been labelled as - self-fulfulling prophecy
How can we analyse Rosenthall and Jacobson?
AO3
Doesn’t apply to contemporary Britain as students aren’t assessed by IQ but with SATs, GCSEs, ALevels, etc
How can we evaluate Rosenthall and Jacobson?
AO3
- Extraneous variables were not controlled - can’t be certain results were only affected by label
- Don’t consider other CAGE factors that might affect attainment
What were Gilborn and Youdell’s findings?
AO1
Teachers have racialised expectations:
Black students: discipline problems, behaviour seen as threatening
Asian students: mispronounced their own names, didn’t like their own culture/customs, teachers saw them as a problem they can ignore
What is and are the pros and cons of setting and streaming?
(Setting and streaming are different but have the same pros/cons)
AO1/3
Setting = pupils put into different ability grouping for different subjects e.g. Set 1 Maths but Set 3 English
Streaming = pupils put into ability groups for all subjects e.g. upper, middle, lower
Advantages: social benefits - encourages relations between people from different backgrounds, ability is not fixed - students can move up or down, different abilities will take different exams - some exams aren’t accessible to certain abilities
Disadvantages: lower set students are demotivated leading to lower attainment, behaviour not ability - evidence that pupils with high ability are put into lower sets for poor behaviour, setting discriminates - working class and minority students are more likely to be put in lower sets
What is and are the pros and cons of mixed ability?
AO1/3
Mixed ability = pupils are put into different groups within the same classroom randomly
Advantages: reduces chances of bullying - kids don’t know the differences in ability to mock anyone as ‘smart’ or ‘dumb’, social benefits
Disadvantages: C-D borderline students are prioritised, requires more work to prepare for all abilities e.g. extension for high ability and scaffolding for low ability, confidence issues - lower ability students may feel intimidated to participate in lesson due to performance of higher kids
What is and are the pros and cons of banding?
AO1/3
Banding = students are put into different groups within the same classroom based on ability e.g. table groups in primary school
Disadvantages: can lead to labelling within the classroom, bullying
What is Mac An Ghail’s view of setting a streaming?
AO1
Critical view:
- Students who should be teachers main concerns end up being in the bottom sets
- Students in top sets are given priority in classrooms with specialist teachers
- Most experienced teachers teach top sets
- Teachers respect and have high expectations of those in top sets - motivate them to do well
How does Ward evaluate Mac an Ghail?(setting and streaming)
AO3
Ward supports Mac an Ghail as he found the same results in South Wales schools:
1. Bottom sets were seen as unlikely to have success and of low ability
2. They were provided with less experienced teachers
3. Information was taught according to their assumed level - no room to grow
How can we analyse Mac An Ghail’s view of setting?
AO3
The current alternative, mixed ability, is very difficult for teachers to carry out and allows less motivated students to distract higher motivated students.
Setting based on motivation is better.
What did Hallam and Hurley find about setting?
AO1
They looked at the possible effects of setting and streaming studing 45 mixed comprehensive schools that were either: mixed ability, partially set, or set.
They found that:
- average grade of mixed ability and set schools were the same
- this is because in mixed ability schools most people do averagely
- in set schools the people in top sets do exceptionally well whereas the bottom sets underperform causing the overall average to be similar to mixed ability schools
What did Garmaron find about the impacts of setting and streaming?
AO1
Garmaron did a survey in the UK, USA, Germany, South Africa, Belgium, and Japan. Found that:
1. Those in high sets gain whereas those in low sets lose
2. Gains of high achievers offset the losses of low achievers
3. The gap between higher achievers and lower achievers widen
4. Middle class students tend to be in top sets whilst working class tend to be in lower sets. This reproduces class inequality as the social gap widens
What did Garmoran see as the solution?
AO1
- Academic standards in lower sets need to be raised including entry to higher education and access to jobs
- Mixed ability classes should be specially designed so that supplementary instructions can be available for those who have difficulty
What theory can we use to analyse Garmoran?
AO3
Marxists would support this research as it shows that education reinforces inequality between the classes through setting and streaming
How can we evaluate Garmoran?
AO3
- Supports Mac an Ghail’s research as it shows students in top sets do better as teachers have higher expectations
- Supports Hallam and Hurley as it shows a large gap between results in higher and lower sets
What was Lacey’s findings?
AO1
Ethnographic study of observations, unstructured interviews, questionnaires, and documents in a boy’s grammar school in England
Lacey’s concepts of differentiation and polarisation explain how pupil subcultures develop.
Differentiation = pupils are set/stream based on how teachers perceive their ability/behaviour
Polarisation = occurs as a result of streaming/setting which is when pupils respond by moving towards opposite poles: pro-school VS anti-school subcultures
How can we analyse Lacey?
AO3
Studied a boys school - may not be applicable to other CAGE factors
How can we evaluate Lacey?
AO3
Willis’ Learning to Labour study suggests that anti-school subcultures is due to class rather than setting/streaming
What is a subculture?
AO1
A group of children who share norms and values that are different to that of mainstream e.g. goths, hippies
What is the difference between
pro-school and anti-school subcultures?
AO1
Pro-school = A group of pupils who accept the ethos and values of the school and willingly conform to its rules
Anti-school = A group of pupils who reject the schools norms and values
What did Hargreaves find in his study?
AO1
Carried out research in a English boys comprehensive school:
- lower stream school boys rejected academic values and behaviour standards
- hence the boys developed a counter-culture
How can we analyse Hargreaves?
AO3
- Lacey had similar findings from a grammar school - applies to all classes
- May not be relevant today as it’s based on only one school and made up of only boys - can’t be generalised to other CAGE factors
How can we evaluate Hargreaves?
AO3
SUPPORT:
- Lacey found a similar culture in grammar schools showing that streaming can put students off learning regardless of their social class
- Ball - abolishing streaming: when the school abolished banding, the basis for pupils to polarise was removed and so did the anti-school subculture
AGAINST:
- Ball however differentiation continued as middle class students are still more likely to be labelled as cooperative thus they had better results
What subcultures did Woods’ identify?
AO1
Believed previous studies were too simplistic and there are other responses separate to pro/anti-school subculture:
1. Ingratiation: pupils who are eager to please teachers and have favourable attitudes towards school - pro-school
2. Compliance: accept school rules and discipline enforced. See school as a useful way to gain qualifications however don’t have a wholely positive or negative view of school
3. Oportunism: fluctuate between seeking approval from teachers or from their peers
4. Ritualism: go through the motion of attending school but with no enthusiasm or engagement
5. Retreatism: indifferent to school values and exam success - may mess around but won’t challenge the school’s authority
6. Colonization: try to get away with as much as possible. May express hostility towards school but avoid getting in trouble - push boundaries. More common in later years of school.
7. Intransigence: troublemakers who are indifferent to school and not bothered about conformity
8. Rebellion: ultimate goal is to rebel against school values - devote effort towards deviant goals
How can we evaluate Woods?
AO3
- Identifies the problems of previous research into subcultures
- Shows there are different subcultures - more applicable to different class, genders, and ethnicities
What different subcultures did Mac an Ghail identify?
AO1
- Academic Achievers: skilled manual working class background - seek academic success by focusing on traditional subjects
- New Enterprisers: Typically working class, reject traditional academic route - see it as a waste of time. Focused on subjects like business and computing, take advantages of school’s opportunities
- Real Englishmen: middle class but anti-school, reject school values but succeed in education due to social and cultural capital
- Macho Lads: failures, join anti-school subcultures - gain status from peers, more likely to be working class
- The Gays: anti-school, believe school is homophobic in their approach to sexuality
How can we analyse Mac an Ghail’s subcultures?
AO3
- Gay subculture being anti-school may be less relevant today as schools are no longer heteronormative in their teaching of sexuality
- Explains why some working class students underachieve: anti-school - low attendance - poor grades - low life chances
How can we evaluate Mac an Ghail’s subcultures?
AO3
AGAINST:
- Hollingworth and Williams: anti-school white subcultures are now seen as chavs rather than lads. Middle class kids have a wider variety of subcultures e.g. skaters, hippies, emos, etc.
- Ward identified another working class subculture - the geeks. They rejected working class culture as they achieved high grades and favour from teachers. Almost all went on to university and obtained middle class occupations
What is identity?
AO1
How individuals see themselves and how they are seen by others
What subculture did Ward identify?
AO1
- Identified a group called the ‘Boiz’ - similar to Willis’ lads or Mac an Ghail’s macho lads
- The Boiz wore tracksuits instead of uniform
- They made fun of ‘geeks’
- Texted in lessons and listened to music
- Unlike the ‘lads’ the Boiz had no jobs to go to as coal mines were being shut down and there was a general decrease in industrial labour
- Saw little value in achieving qualifications - only 4/12 went to university
How can we analyse Ward?
AO3
- Relevant to modern society - still a decline in industrialisation. This leads to loss of working class identity - may be reason for working class boys underperforming
What was Archer’s theory?
AO1
- Drew on Boudieu’s concept of ‘habitus’
- Habitus = learned ways of thinking shared by a particular group or social class e.g. lifestyle, leisure pursuits
- Upper class habitus is seen as superior and therfore can be imposed in education
- This advantages upper class pupils as school is designed for their culture - allows them to fit in with ease
- Working class habitus is seen as inferior - less cultural capital - underperform
What impact did Archer believe this had?
AO2
Symbolic capital:
- MC have superior habitus
- Deemed to have more worth and value
- MC pupils have been socialised this way and have their preferences gain ‘symbolic capital’
Symbolic violence:
- society looks down on WC - see their ideals/language/lifestyle as demeaning or defficient
- therefore the withholding of cultural capital is seen as symbolic violence - keeps them in their place and prevents social mobility
What identities did Archer believe this led to?
AO2
Nike Identities:
- because of symbolic violence WC turned to fashion labels and brands to gain status
- style creates a ‘this is us’ mentality
- style is heavily policed by peers - not conforming is seen as social suicide
- right appearance earns symbolic capital and peer approval thus preventing bullying
- Archer claims they adopt this nike identity due to marginalisation faced in education
Hyper-heterosexual feminine styles:
- policed by peers
- gain status by presenting themselves as sexy and glamorous
- not conforming risks social suicide - becoming unpopular ‘tramps’
What did Ingram find about working class identity?
AO2
- Pupils identifying with habitus was more important to WC than MC
- However, when they attended grammar schools they were pressured into conforming to both classes’ habitus by their neighbourhood and school
What did Allen find about gender and class identity?
AO1
2 year study of 25 middle class 11-12 year old girls in a high achieving girls school:
- Underachievers: seen as rebels, bad girls, and misbehavers. Made jokes in lessons - found it uncool to do work
- They were middle class but saw themselves as ‘common’ as the wealthier ‘posh’ girls attended private schools - had to pay for their privilege
- Downplayed the importance of academic achievement - not because they saw others as smarter but because money can buy better schooling
How can we analyse Allen?
AO3
- Can’t be applied to girls of other classes or boys - not relevant to todays society
What was Jackson’s view of subcultures?
AO1
- Jackson argues that subcultures cross class and gender boundaries. Studied 13-14 year olds in North England including 203 students and 30 teachers interviewed and 800 students completing questionnaires.
- Argued that both genders created laddish subcultures in response to pressures to succeed and their desire to be popular.
1. pressure to succeed comes from marketisation and competition between schools. This creates a climate for academic failure.
2. Being popular is important to young people. This may result in them being loud/disruptive/funny/aggressive to avoid being seen as geeks - not cool to work. Popularity acts as a defense mechanism for failure
How can we evaluate Jackson?
AO3
- Large sample and high response rate - results are more generalisable
- Mixed methods gives more information
- Used teacher perspectives to consolidate the findings from students
What did Shain find about ethnicity and identity?
AO1
Studied 44 Asian girls aged 13-16, mostly Pakistani in 8 schools.
Found 4 types of subcultures:
1. Gang girls: anti-school, saw school as racist. Led to emphasis of their own culture - withdrew from other students
2. Survivors: conformed to school values in order to achieve academic success despite also believing the schools were racist and sexist
3. Rebels: labelled this by teachers, saw unequal gender relations at home, in school, and in their community - anti-school
4. Faith Girls: prioritised their religion over ethnicity - integrated with girls from other ethnicities. Used survival activities to gain academic success
How can we analyse Shain?
AO3
Doesn’t reflect other ethnic identities
How can we evaluate Shain?
AO3
Small sample - can’t generalise
