Interactionist + Environmental Theories of Crime

Question 1

What are the key assumptions of labelling theory?

Answer 1

1. Everybody commits criminal/deviant acts at some point - it’s just that only a few get caught
2. We should focus on the interaction between deviants and those who label them
3. Rules are selectively enforced and some groups are far more likely to be labelled as criminals
4. A crime is only a crime due to labelling

Question 2

What was Malinowski’s study?

AO2

Answer 2

• Found that the people on Trobriand Island did incest in secret
• One boy was open about his incestuousness and became stigmatised
• This ostracisation led to him commiting suicide

Question 3

What did Becker say about Malinowski’s study?

AO1/2

Answer 3

• Just because someone breaks a rule doesn’t mean others will find it deviant
• Someone must be actively enforcing the rules and paying attention to the person
• Due to the boy being open about his incestuousness he drew attention to himself causing negative labelling
• It is only when someone is sucessfully labelled that consequences follow

Question 4

What is Becker’s theory of why people commit crimes?

AO1

Answer 4

1. A moral entrepeneur labels someone as a criminal - usually based on appearance
2. Their self-perception is affected by how others perceive and treat them
3. The person buys into the idea that they are a criminal as they are treated and feel like one
4. Master status - the criminal identity becomes the main way they identify themself
5. The person becomes a career criminal

Question 5

What is selective law enforcement?

AO1/2

Answer 5

• Becker: policing based on stereotypes and preconceptions - WC and ethnic minority boys are more heavily policed
• Cicourel: MC can use cultural capital to get out of crimes. Compared 2 Californian cities - same social structure and amount of petty crime but one was WC and the other was MC. Found that formal action was more likely to be taken against the WC children whereas MC children were often let off. The police make delinquents.

Question 6

What are some examples of selective law enforcement?

AO2/3

Answer 6

• When the Windrush generation came to Notting Hill, police presence in the area increased. This led to racial tension as the white wealthy population believed the Carribeans would commit crime. This led to the 1950s Race Riots
• Young: marijuana was initally just a leisurely drug in Notting Hill. But the media exaggerated drug use in the area leading to more policing. This made the people of Notting Hill feel othered from society causing them to unite and the drug users to retreat into smaller groups. Deviancy eventually became the norm as drug use became a central activity rather than leisurely
• Lavina Woodward stabbed her boyfriend but received a minimal sentence because the judge decided she was “too bright” to go to jail as she studied medicine at Oxford and “immediate custody would end her career”
• Chambliss studied 8 MC delinquent boys - the ‘saints’ and 6 WC delinquent boys - the ‘roughknecks’. MC boys used their cultural capital to get off and weren’t labelled - they went on to be successful. The WC boys were labelled as criminals - 2 became senior criminals, 2 were in and out of prison, remaining 2 rejected the label and became teachers

Question 7

What is Primary and Secondary deviance?

AO1

Answer 7

Primary = if something is not publicly labelled, there is no consequences if no one knows someone does it. But if the person is exposed and a deviant label is attached they are stigmatised and excluded. This label becomes their master status which affects how they see themself.
Secondary = because they’ve been labelled deviant, further deviance follows. They internalise the label leading to a self fulfilling prophecy

Question 8

What did Lemert find?

clue: not to do with crime but an example

AO2

Answer 8

• Looked at stuttering and found children only had stutters due to the cultural emphasis put on ceremonial speech-making
• Primary deviance = stuttering the first time
• Parents reaction causes secondary deviance - chronic stuttering
• The reaction to a crime can cause more crime

Question 9

What are some examples of secondary deviance?

AO2/3

Answer 9

• Young: marijuana use in Notting Hill only became a central part of life rather than a leisurely activity due to the media sensationalising drug use in the area making them feel isolated from society
• Cohen: the media created a moral panic by overreporting the clash between the mods and rockers making the boys ‘folk devils’ and only led to further deviance as the groups came back to have a bigger fight - deviancy amplification
• The current media has made a moral panic surrounding knife crime
• Chambliss studied 8 MC delinquent boys - the ‘saints’ and 6 WC delinquent boys - the ‘roughknecks’. MC boys used their cultural capital to get off and weren’t labelled - they went on to be successful. The WC boys were labelled as criminals - 2 became senior criminals, 2 were in and out of prison, remaining 2 rejected the label and became teachers

Question 10

What does Braithwaite say about shaming?

AO1/2

Answer 10

There are 2 types of shaming:
1. Disintegrative shaming: you are publically labelled and shamed for commiting a crime separating you from the community
2. Reintegrative shaming: acknowledging the criminal behaviour but actively trying to make it easier for them to return to being law abiding e.g. rehab, prison education

Question 11

How can we analyse Braithwaite?

AO3

Answer 11

The UK is moving towards reintegrative shaming:
- The 1st speeding offence can be punished by having to take a speed awareness course over getting a fine/points
- Parents of delinquents have to take parenting classes

Question 12

How can we evaluate the Interactionist Theory?

AO3

Answer 12

• Plummer: it’s influential - had influence on policy, led to discussions about the role of media in deviancy amplification and creating moral panics, and the police in creating delinquency
• Deterministic: you can reject criminal labels
• Doesn’t explain why the initial crime/primary deviance took place
• More sympathy for criminals than victims - by focusing on how labelling leads people to become criminals they dismiss the impact of crime on victims
• Marxists: ignores white collar crime
• Liazos: interactionists add to the problem. By overfocusing on crimes that are negatively labelled like drug use and prostitution they add to the stigma

Question 13

What is social disorganisation theory?

AO1

Answer 13

• Shaw and McKay used concentric circles to understand crime rates
• While central business districts are kept immune from crime, the zone of transition is defined by highest crime rates due to high immigrant population
• As each wave of immigrants arrive they are moved to the cheapest least desirable zone
• Some become successful and move to more residential areas and are replaced by more immigrants
• This turnover causes social disorganisation where the normal controls that prevent crime e.g. value consensus are lost

Question 14

What is cultural transmission theory?

AO1

Answer 14

• Shaw and McKay later ammended their theory to become cultural transmission theory
• This suggests that crime has become the norm in the zones of transmission and so crime is inherited

Question 15

How can we analyse Shaw and McKay?

AO3

Answer 15

Applies today - violent crime is highest in Lambeth and Newham - both poor areas with high immigrant populations

Question 16

How can we evaluate Shaw and McKay?

AO3

Answer 16

Sutherland and Cressey: cultural transmission is not important but diffrential association i.e. if someone interacts with other law breakers they are likely to follow suit.
Differential associations an be impacted by:
- frequency - how often the lawbreaker commits crime
- duration - how long the lawbreaker commits crime
- priority - how important the lawbreaker is to the individual
- intensity - what the individual does when with the lawbreaker

Question 17

What do other environmental theorists say?

AO1

Answer 17

• Brantingham: offenders commit crime along familiar local roots using cognitive maps - areas that they know well
• Morris: local councils put council housed people together forces law abiding residents to flee from these law breakers. This tips the balance leading to more crime
• Baldwin and Bottoms: looked at 2 council estates and found evidence for tipping
• Skogan: social control breaks down when there’s physical deterioration. This leads to increased drug and alcohol usage resulting in even more crime
• Marshall: deterioration of council esates due to culture, attitudes, and insufficient funding causes crime
• Wilson and Keling: broken windows theory - visible signs of crime and civil disorder e.g. broken windows, vandalism create an urban environment that promotes even more crime and disorder
• Hobbes and Lister: nocturnal economy - growth of pubs and bars encourages crime especially among the drunk people leaving these establishments e.g. drunk fighting, public indecency, disturbing the peace
• Clarke: rational choice theory - the more attractive and accessible the target the more likely a crime will be committed e.g. an expensive unattended car

Question 18

How can we analyse environmental theory?

AI3

Answer 18

• Nocturnal economy justifies curfews
• Justifies the licensing laws of 2005 - only responsible licensed sellers can distribute alcohol - minimises chance of underaged drinking thus reducing related crimes from that demographic
• Explains why alcohol can’t be consumed in public spaces and transport

Question 19

How can we evaluate environmental theory?

AO3

Answer 19

• Shaw and McKay don’t explain why areas with immigrants commit more crime - may be due to poverty, the fact these areas are more heavily policed, or lack of cultural capital to get out of conviction
• Morris: legitimates racist arguments e.g. that black men are inherently more criminal by suggesting that when law abiding i.e. white MC people leave an area it deteriorates
• Ignores structural issues: e.g. the privatisation of youth services like Connexions in Ilford bring shut down has led to an increase in crime as WC youth have nowhere to go in their freetime and turn to the streets. Also the gentrification of the zones of transmission push the poor further out from the city and so further from opportunity