INTEGRATIVE SYSTEM Flashcards
1
Q
refers to processes—such a
summation and coordination— that produce
coherency and result in harmonious function
A
Integration
2
Q
refers to the selective
combination and processing of sensory,
endocrine, and central nervous system (CNS)
information in ways that promote the harmonious
functioning of the whole.
A
Whole-animal integration
3
Q
sets the level of a variable
(temperature, blood pressure, muscle force, and
so on) that is being controlled
A
The control system
4
Q
The nervous and endocrine systems are also often
described as control systems because ____
A
nerve cells
and endocrine cells control how other cells
function.
5
Q
a cell that is specially adapted to
generate an electrical signal
A
neuron
6
Q
an electrical signal—most often in the form of a brief, self-propagating impulse that travels from place to place in
the cell.
A
action potential
7
Q
neuron receives input—signals from other
neurons or sensory cells—at specialized cell–cell
contact points called
A
synapses
8
Q
nucleus and
metabolic center of the
cell
A
Cell body
9
Q
fibers that
extend from the cell body
(dendrites and axons)
A
Processes
10
Q
relay sensory signals
to integrative centers of the CNS
A
Afferent Neuron
11
Q
relay control signals
(instructions) from the CNS to target
cells that are under nervous control,
such as muscle cells or secretory cells
A
Efferent Neuron
12
Q
Signals of the neurons in nervous systems—
____—the signals produced by
the endocrine system are broadly distributed
throughout the animal’s body
A
precisely targeted
13
Q
Endocrine cells release hormones into the
____ (or sometimes just into other
extracellular fluids)
A
blood
14
Q
Endocrine control has two essential features:
A
slow and broadcast
15
Q
neurons, muscle fibers, and a few others can generate electrical signals are known as
A
Excitable cells
16
Q
action potentials which neurons may
also be called?
A
nerve impulses
17
Q
one of the most important kinds of electrical
signals underlying the integrative activity
of nervous systems
A
Action potentials/
nerve impulses
18
Q
Action potentials result from ____ changes in membrane
permeabilities to ions because the ion
channels that produce action potentials are
voltage-gated—that is, their opening depends
on the membrane potential
A
voltage dependent
19
Q
An action potential is initiated by a change in
the resting membrane potential, specifically
by a ____ sufficiently strong to open
the voltage-gated channels
A
depolarization
20
Q
An action potential results from intense,
localized ____—increases that are both
voltage- and time-dependent.
A
increases in permeabilities to
specific ions
21
Q
Action potentials are propagated along the axons of neurones via
A
local currents
22
Q
Local currents induce depolarisation of the
____.
Where this reaches a threshold, further action
potentials are generated
A
adjacent axonal membrane
23
Q
The areas of the membrane that have recently
depolarised will not depolarise again due to the
____ – meaning that the action
potential will only travel in one direction.
A
refractory period
24
Q
These local currents would eventually
decrease in charge until a threshold is ____
A
no
longer reached
25
distance that it would take depends
on the membrane are?
membrane capacitance and
membrane resistance
26
ability to **store charge**. The lower capacitance results in a ____ is no longer reached
Membrane Capacitance
greater distance before the threshold
27
_the number of ion channels open.
The lower the **number of channels open**, the ____ membrane resistance is.
A higher membrane resistance results in a ____ before
the threshold is no longer reached.
Membrane Resistance
greater
greater distance
28
The nervous system controls predominantly the ________, the endocrine system typically controls more ____ activities such as metabolic changes.
fine,
rapid movements of discrete muscles
widespread,
prolonged
29
specialized site of contact of a
neuron with another neuron
Synapse
30
Neurons (except in the special case of
those having electrical synapses) are
discontinuous with each other; even at
synapses, they are typically separated
by a ____ (nm) space
called the ____
20- to 30-nanometer
synaptic cleft
31
a presynaptic signal—usually an action potential—affects a postsynaptic cell.
Synaptic transmission
32
The effect is rapid and transient, and it
can be ____
* This ____is the simplest kind of
synaptic action
excitatory or inhibitory.
transmission of a signal across
the synapse
33
the ability to change the
functional properties of synapses.
Synapse Transmission
34
can change the
synapse itself to make it stronger or
weaker, and they can also produce
long-lasting changes in the
postsynaptic cell
Synaptic actions
35
can result from a permeability increase or a
permeability decrease
synaptic potential
36
electric currents from one cell flow directly into the next cell,
changing its membrane potential
Electrical Synapse
37
Because of their instantaneous transmission of signals and their
synchronizing ability, electrical synapses are found in ____ where speed is most important, and where synchronous
activity of several cells is an advantage
nervous
systems
38
The major structural specialization for electrical transmission is
the?
gap junction
39
a specialized locus where protein
channels bridge the gap between two
cells, directly connecting their cytoplasm
Gap Junction
40
Gap junctions provide a ____
path for current flow, electrically coupling
the cells that they join.
Thus any electrical change in one cell is
recorded in the other, with some
weakening but with negligible delay
low-resistance
41
chemical synapses have a discontinuity between the cells
because the ____________ of a chemical synapse is
a barrier to direct electrical communication
20- to 30-nm synaptic cleft
42
first transduced into a
chemical signal: the release of neurotransmitter molecules from
the presynaptic terminals
presynaptic electrical signal
43
molecules of neurotransmitter rapidly diffuse to the
____, where they bind to receptor molecules
that are specialized to generate an electrical or chemical change
in response to the neurotransmitter binding
postsynaptic membrane
44
# Ways of How Neurotransmitter Works
produce **fast changes** in membrane
potential (depolarization or hyperpolarization) by directly increasing permeability to ions
Ionotropic receptors
45
# Ways of How Neurotransmitter Works
have relatively slow, **long-lasting** modulatory effects on synaptic processes; trigger a **signaling cascade** of second messengers in the postsynaptic cell
Metabotropic receptors
46
# Synaptic Potentials Control Neuronal
Excitability
an **increase** in the probability that a cell will
**generate an impulse** (an action potential), or if the cell is already generating impulses, ____ causes an **increase in the impulse frequency**.
excitation
47
# Synaptic Potentials Control Neuronal
Excitability
a **decrease** in the probability of **impulse generation** or a decrease in impulse frequency.
Inhibition
48
are **chemical messengers** that carry, boost, and balance signals between neurons (also known as nerve cells) and target cells throughout the body.
* These target cells may be in glands, muscles, or other
neurons
Neurotransmitters
49
Neurotransmitter like dopamine and
glutamate, typically act directly on neighboring cells
Small-molecule transmitters
50
Neurotransmitter, small molecules like insulin and
oxytocin, **work more subtly, modulating, or adjusting**, how cells communicate at the synapse
neuropeptides
51
4 Criteria Neurotransmitter
* Presence of the chemical within the cell.
* Stimulus-dependent release
* Action on the postsynaptic cell
* A mechanism for removal.
52
Classification of
Neurotransmitter
Excitatory Neurotransmitter
Inhibitory Neurotransmitter
Modulatory Neurotransmitters
53
they **increase** the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential.
Excitatory Neurotransmitters
54
examples of Excitatory Neurotransmitters
epinephrine and
norepinephrine
55
they **decrease** the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
56
examples of Inhibitory Neurotransmitters
serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
57
* often referred to as **neuromodulators**, are capable of **affecting a larger number of neurons at the same time**
* also influence the effects of other chemical messengers.
* diffuse across a larger area and are more slow-acting
Modulatory Neurotransmitters
58
examples of Modulatory Neurotransmitters
acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, histamine, and
cannabinoids.
59
6 categories of NT
amino acids
peptides
monoamines
purines
gasotransmitter
acetylcholine
60
types of amino acids
GABA
glutamate
61
types of peptides
oxytocin
endorphins
62
types of monoamines
epinephrine
norepinephrine
histamine
dopamine
serotonin
63
type of purines
adenosine
64
types of gasotransmitter
nitric oxide
carbon monoxide
65
naturally occurring amino acid acts as the body's main **inhibitory chemical messenger**
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA):
66
contributes to vision and motor control, also playing a
role in the regulation of anxiety
GABA
67
which are used to help **treat anxiety**, function by **increasing the efficiency of GABA** neurotransmitters, which can increase feelings of relaxation and calm
Benzodiazepines
68
* **most plentiful** neurotransmitter found in the **nervous system**
glutamate
69
plays a role in cognitive
functions such as memory and learning
glutamate
70
Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause ____
resulting in cellular death
excitotoxicity
71
diseases associated with glutamate build-up
Alzheimer's disease
stroke
and
epileptic seizures
72
powerful **hormone** **acts as a neurotransmitter** in the brain
Oxytocin
73
produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in social
recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction
oxytocin
74
Synthetic oxytocin such as ____ is often used as an aid in
labor and delivery
Pitocin
75
These neurotransmitters **inhibit** the transmission of **pain** signals and promote feelings of **euphoria**.
Endorphins
76
These chemical messengers are produced naturally by the
body in response to pain, but they can also be triggered by
other activities such as aerobic exercise.
endorphins
77
Also known as adrenaline
Epinephrine
78
is considered both a hormone and a neurotransmitter (functions as NT in the brain)
Epinephrine
79
a **stress hormone** that is released
by the adrenal system
epinephrine
80
plays an important role in **alertness** and is involved in the body's **fight-or-flight** response
Norepinephrine
81
to help mobilize the body and brain to take action in times of
danger or stress.
norepinephrine
82
norepinephrine levels of this neurotransmitter are typically ____ during sleep and ____ during times of stress
lowest
highest
83
organic compound acts as a
neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal
Histamine
84
plays a role in allergic reactions and is produced as part of
the immune system's response to pathogens.
histamine
85
aka feel-good neurotransmitter, involved in reward, motivation, and addictions
Dopamine
## Footnote
Several types of addictive drugs increase dopamine levels in the
brain.
86
This chemical messenger also plays an important role in the
coordination of body movements.
dopamine
87
degenerative disease that results in **tremors and motor movement impairments**, is caused by the **loss of dopamine**-generating neurons in the brain
Parkinson's disease
88
* hormone and neurotransmitter
* plays an important role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and appetite.
serotonin
89
a type of antidepressant medication commonly prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and panic attacks
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
90
SSRIs work to balance serotonin levels by ____ the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which can help improve mood and reduce feelings of anxiety.
blocking
91
acts as a neuromodulator in the brain and is involved in suppressing arousing and improving sleep
adenosine
92
acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems (**CNS and PNS**). It plays a role in autonomic control, **sensory transduction**, and communication with **glial cells**.
ATP
93
ATP associated neurological problems
pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders
94
plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, relaxing them to **allow blood vessels to dilate** and **increase blood flow** to certain areas of the body.
nitric oxide
95
colorless, odorless gas can have toxic and potentially fatal effects when people are exposed to high levels of the substance. However, it is also produced naturally by the body where it acts as a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body's **inflammatory response**
carbon monoxide
96
Found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, it is the primary neurotransmitter associated with **motor neurons**, as well as **memory and learning**
acetylcholine
97
Problems of Neurotransmitters
* Neurons might not manufacture enough of a particular
neurotransmitter
* Neurotransmitters may be reabsorbed too quickly
* Too many neurotransmitters may be deactivated by
enzymes
* Too much of a particular neurotransmitter may be released
98
5 important NT
dopamine
oxytocin
norepinephrine
endorphins
serotonin
99
a chemical substance produced and released by
nonneural endocrine cells or by neurons
hormone
100
hormone exerts regulatory influences on the function of other, distant cells reached via the blood; and it is effective at _____
very low concentrations
101
Hormones released by neurons
neurohormones
102
neurons and hormones
neuroendocrine or
neurosecretory cells
103
Secretory cells may be organized into discrete organs
endocrine glands
104
Classification of Hormones
steroid hormones
peptide and protein hormones
amine hormones
105
hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol
## Footnote
with examples
steroid hormones
## Footnote
steroids, cortisol, aldosterone
106
are structured from chains of amino
acids
## Footnote
with examples
Peptide and protein hormones
## Footnote
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), atrial-natriuretic peptide, FSH,
insulin and growth hormone
107
modified amino acids; synthesized
from tryptophan or tyrosine
## Footnote
with examples
amine hormones
## Footnote
Melatonin, thyroid, catecholamines
– epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine
108
Types of Endocrine Cells
Epithelial endocrine cells -> hormone
Neurosecretory cells -> neurohormones
109
The **hypothalamus–posterior** pituitary connection illustrates one form of control of endocrine function: **neural control of neurosecretory cells**
## Footnote
stores and releases hormones (oxytocin, ADH) produced by hypothalamus
neurohypophysis
110
In mammalian hypothalamus, the ____, produce oxytocin and
vasopressin and are released into the blood in the
pars nervosa
## Footnote
neurohypophysis
paraventricular
nuclei and supraoptic nuclei
111
Anterior pituitary hormones
## Footnote
secretes hormone (ACTH, prolactin, somatotropin) independently
adenohypophysis
112
adenohypophysis are categorized into two main
groups according to their target tissues
1st group: principal effects on **nonendocrine
tissues**
2nd group: hormones that control **other
endocrine glands**
113
adenohypophysis first group example
Growth hormone (GH), prolactin, and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MS)
114
adenohypophysis second group example
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)/
thyrotropin
115
The ____ is a **neurohemal organ** in which the **axons** of several populations of hypothalamic neurosecretory cells **terminate**. These cells produce neurohormones that control the secretions
of specific groups of anterior pituitary cells.
## Footnote
Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal
system.
median eminence
116
Some hypothalamic **neurohormones stimulate secretion of hormones** and are called
## Footnote
Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal
system.
releasing hormones (RHs).
117
**inhibit secretion** of anterior pituitary hormones
## Footnote
Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal
system.
inhibiting hormones (IHs),
118
as providing an **interface** between the **brain** and much of the **endocrine** system.
Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal system
119
The posterior pituitary is an ____ of the brain.
The anterior pituitary—although not part of the brain—is under
the ____ of the brain and regulates the functions of many
other tissues, including several endocrine glands
extension
control
120
“Neural control of the endocrine system
____, but endocrine control
of the nervous system is also _____”
“Neural control of the endocrine system
deserves emphasis, but endocrine control
of the nervous system is also important”
