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PHYSIO > INTEGRATIVE SYSTEM > Flashcards

INTEGRATIVE SYSTEM Flashcards

1
Q

refers to processes—such a
summation and coordination— that produce
coherency and result in harmonious function

A

Integration

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2
Q

refers to the selective
combination and processing of sensory,
endocrine, and central nervous system (CNS)
information in ways that promote the harmonious
functioning of the whole.

A

Whole-animal integration

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3
Q

sets the level of a variable
(temperature, blood pressure, muscle force, and
so on) that is being controlled

A

The control system

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4
Q

The nervous and endocrine systems are also often
described as control systems because ____

A

nerve cells
and endocrine cells control how other cells
function.

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5
Q

a cell that is specially adapted to
generate an electrical signal

A

neuron

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6
Q

an electrical signal—most often in the form of a brief, self-propagating impulse that travels from place to place in
the cell.

A

action potential

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7
Q

neuron receives input—signals from other
neurons or sensory cells—at specialized cell–cell
contact points called

A

synapses

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8
Q

nucleus and
metabolic center of the
cell

A

Cell body

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9
Q

fibers that
extend from the cell body
(dendrites and axons)

A

Processes

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10
Q

relay sensory signals
to integrative centers of the CNS

A

Afferent Neuron

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11
Q

relay control signals
(instructions) from the CNS to target
cells that are under nervous control,
such as muscle cells or secretory cells

A

Efferent Neuron

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12
Q

Signals of the neurons in nervous systems—
____—the signals produced by
the endocrine system are broadly distributed
throughout the animal’s body

A

precisely targeted

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13
Q

Endocrine cells release hormones into the
____ (or sometimes just into other
extracellular fluids)

A

blood

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14
Q

Endocrine control has two essential features:

A

slow and broadcast

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15
Q

neurons, muscle fibers, and a few others can generate electrical signals are known as

A

Excitable cells

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16
Q

action potentials which neurons may
also be called?

A

nerve impulses

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17
Q

one of the most important kinds of electrical
signals underlying the integrative activity
of nervous systems

A

Action potentials/
nerve impulses

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18
Q

Action potentials result from ____ changes in membrane
permeabilities to ions because the ion
channels that produce action potentials are
voltage-gated—that is, their opening depends
on the membrane potential

A

voltage dependent

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19
Q

An action potential is initiated by a change in
the resting membrane potential, specifically
by a ____ sufficiently strong to open
the voltage-gated channels

A

depolarization

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20
Q

An action potential results from intense,
localized ____—increases that are both
voltage- and time-dependent.

A

increases in permeabilities to
specific ions

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21
Q

Action potentials are propagated along the axons of neurones via

A

local currents

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22
Q

Local currents induce depolarisation of the
____.
Where this reaches a threshold, further action
potentials are generated

A

adjacent axonal membrane

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23
Q

The areas of the membrane that have recently
depolarised will not depolarise again due to the
____ – meaning that the action
potential will only travel in one direction.

A

refractory period

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24
Q

These local currents would eventually
decrease in charge until a threshold is ____

A

no
longer reached

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25
Q

distance that it would take depends
on the membrane are?

A

membrane capacitance and
membrane resistance

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26
Q

ability to store charge. The lower capacitance results in a ____ is no longer reached

A

Membrane Capacitance
greater distance before the threshold

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27
Q

_the number of ion channels open.

The lower the number of channels open, the ____ membrane resistance is.

A higher membrane resistance results in a ____ before
the threshold is no longer reached.

A

Membrane Resistance
greater
greater distance

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28
Q

The nervous system controls predominantly the ________, the endocrine system typically controls more ____ activities such as metabolic changes.

A

fine,
rapid movements of discrete muscles

widespread,
prolonged

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29
Q

specialized site of contact of a
neuron with another neuron

A

Synapse

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30
Q

Neurons (except in the special case of
those having electrical synapses) are
discontinuous with each other; even at
synapses, they are typically separated
by a ____ (nm) space
called the ____

A

20- to 30-nanometer
synaptic cleft

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31
Q

a presynaptic signal—usually an action potential—affects a postsynaptic cell.

A

Synaptic transmission

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32
Q

The effect is rapid and transient, and it
can be ____
* This ____is the simplest kind of
synaptic action

A

excitatory or inhibitory.
transmission of a signal across
the synapse

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33
Q

the ability to change the
functional properties of synapses.

A

Synapse Transmission

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34
Q

can change the
synapse itself to make it stronger or
weaker, and they can also produce
long-lasting changes in the
postsynaptic cell

A

Synaptic actions

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35
Q

can result from a permeability increase or a
permeability decrease

A

synaptic potential

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36
Q

electric currents from one cell flow directly into the next cell,
changing its membrane potential

A

Electrical Synapse

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37
Q

Because of their instantaneous transmission of signals and their
synchronizing ability, electrical synapses are found in ____ where speed is most important, and where synchronous
activity of several cells is an advantage

A

nervous
systems

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38
Q

The major structural specialization for electrical transmission is
the?

A

gap junction

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39
Q

a specialized locus where protein
channels bridge the gap between two
cells, directly connecting their cytoplasm

A

Gap Junction

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40
Q

Gap junctions provide a ____
path for current flow, electrically coupling
the cells that they join.
Thus any electrical change in one cell is
recorded in the other, with some
weakening but with negligible delay

A

low-resistance

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41
Q

chemical synapses have a discontinuity between the cells
because the ____________ of a chemical synapse is
a barrier to direct electrical communication

A

20- to 30-nm synaptic cleft

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42
Q

first transduced into a
chemical signal: the release of neurotransmitter molecules from
the presynaptic terminals

A

presynaptic electrical signal

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43
Q

molecules of neurotransmitter rapidly diffuse to the
____, where they bind to receptor molecules
that are specialized to generate an electrical or chemical change
in response to the neurotransmitter binding

A

postsynaptic membrane

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44
Q

Ways of How Neurotransmitter Works

produce fast changes in membrane
potential (depolarization or hyperpolarization) by directly increasing permeability to ions

A

Ionotropic receptors

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45
Q

Ways of How Neurotransmitter Works

have relatively slow, long-lasting modulatory effects on synaptic processes; trigger a signaling cascade of second messengers in the postsynaptic cell

A

Metabotropic receptors

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46
Q

Synaptic Potentials Control Neuronal

Excitability

an increase in the probability that a cell will
generate an impulse (an action potential), or if the cell is already generating impulses, ____ causes an increase in the impulse frequency.

A

excitation

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47
Q

Synaptic Potentials Control Neuronal

Excitability

a decrease in the probability of impulse generation or a decrease in impulse frequency.

A

Inhibition

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48
Q

are chemical messengers that carry, boost, and balance signals between neurons (also known as nerve cells) and target cells throughout the body.
* These target cells may be in glands, muscles, or other
neurons

A

Neurotransmitters

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49
Q

Neurotransmitter like dopamine and
glutamate, typically act directly on neighboring cells

A

Small-molecule transmitters

50
Q

Neurotransmitter, small molecules like insulin and
oxytocin, work more subtly, modulating, or adjusting, how cells communicate at the synapse

A

neuropeptides

51
Q

4 Criteria Neurotransmitter

A
  • Presence of the chemical within the cell.
  • Stimulus-dependent release
  • Action on the postsynaptic cell
  • A mechanism for removal.
52
Q

Classification of
Neurotransmitter

A

Excitatory Neurotransmitter
Inhibitory Neurotransmitter
Modulatory Neurotransmitters

53
Q

they increase the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential.

A

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

54
Q

examples of Excitatory Neurotransmitters

A

epinephrine and
norepinephrine

55
Q

they decrease the likelihood that the neuron will fire an action potential

A

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

56
Q

examples of Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

A

serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

57
Q
  • often referred to as neuromodulators, are capable of affecting a larger number of neurons at the same time
  • also influence the effects of other chemical messengers.
  • diffuse across a larger area and are more slow-acting
A

Modulatory Neurotransmitters

58
Q

examples of Modulatory Neurotransmitters

A

acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, histamine, and
cannabinoids.

59
Q

6 categories of NT

A

amino acids
peptides
monoamines
purines
gasotransmitter
acetylcholine

60
Q

types of amino acids

A

GABA
glutamate

61
Q

types of peptides

A

oxytocin
endorphins

62
Q

types of monoamines

A

epinephrine
norepinephrine
histamine
dopamine
serotonin

63
Q

type of purines

A

adenosine

64
Q

types of gasotransmitter

A

nitric oxide
carbon monoxide

65
Q

naturally occurring amino acid acts as the body’s main inhibitory chemical messenger

A

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA):

66
Q

contributes to vision and motor control, also playing a
role in the regulation of anxiety

A

GABA

67
Q

which are used to help treat anxiety, function by increasing the efficiency of GABA neurotransmitters, which can increase feelings of relaxation and calm

A

Benzodiazepines

68
Q
  • most plentiful neurotransmitter found in the nervous system
A

glutamate

69
Q

plays a role in cognitive
functions such as memory and learning

A

glutamate

70
Q

Excessive amounts of glutamate can cause ____
resulting in cellular death

A

excitotoxicity

71
Q

diseases associated with glutamate build-up

A

Alzheimer’s disease
stroke
and
epileptic seizures

72
Q

powerful hormone acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain

A

Oxytocin

73
Q

produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in social
recognition, bonding, and sexual reproduction

A

oxytocin

74
Q

Synthetic oxytocin such as ____ is often used as an aid in
labor and delivery

A

Pitocin

75
Q

These neurotransmitters inhibit the transmission of pain signals and promote feelings of euphoria.

A

Endorphins

76
Q

These chemical messengers are produced naturally by the
body in response to pain, but they can also be triggered by
other activities such as aerobic exercise.

A

endorphins

77
Q

Also known as adrenaline

A

Epinephrine

78
Q

is considered both a hormone and a neurotransmitter (functions as NT in the brain)

A

Epinephrine

79
Q

a stress hormone that is released
by the adrenal system

A

epinephrine

80
Q

plays an important role in alertness and is involved in the body’s fight-or-flight response

A

Norepinephrine

81
Q

to help mobilize the body and brain to take action in times of
danger or stress.

A

norepinephrine

82
Q

norepinephrine levels of this neurotransmitter are typically ____ during sleep and ____ during times of stress

A

lowest
highest

83
Q

organic compound acts as a
neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal

A

Histamine

84
Q

plays a role in allergic reactions and is produced as part of
the immune system’s response to pathogens.

A

histamine

85
Q

aka feel-good neurotransmitter, involved in reward, motivation, and addictions

A

Dopamine

Several types of addictive drugs increase dopamine levels in the
brain.

86
Q

This chemical messenger also plays an important role in the
coordination of body movements.

A

dopamine

87
Q

degenerative disease that results in tremors and motor movement impairments, is caused by the loss of dopamine-generating neurons in the brain

A

Parkinson’s disease

88
Q
  • hormone and neurotransmitter
  • plays an important role in regulating and modulating mood, sleep, anxiety, sexuality, and appetite.
A

serotonin

89
Q

a type of antidepressant medication commonly prescribed to treat depression, anxiety, panic disorder, and panic attacks

A

Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

90
Q

SSRIs work to balance serotonin levels by ____ the reuptake of serotonin in the brain, which can help improve mood and reduce feelings of anxiety.

A

blocking

91
Q

acts as a neuromodulator in the brain and is involved in suppressing arousing and improving sleep

A

adenosine

92
Q

acts as a neurotransmitter in the central and peripheral nervous systems (CNS and PNS). It plays a role in autonomic control, sensory transduction, and communication with glial cells.

A

ATP

93
Q

ATP associated neurological problems

A

pain, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders

94
Q

plays a role in affecting smooth muscles, relaxing them to allow blood vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to certain areas of the body.

A

nitric oxide

95
Q

colorless, odorless gas can have toxic and potentially fatal effects when people are exposed to high levels of the substance. However, it is also produced naturally by the body where it acts as a neurotransmitter that helps modulate the body’s inflammatory response

A

carbon monoxide

96
Q

Found in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, it is the primary neurotransmitter associated with motor neurons, as well as memory and learning

A

acetylcholine

97
Q

Problems of Neurotransmitters

A
  • Neurons might not manufacture enough of a particular
    neurotransmitter
  • Neurotransmitters may be reabsorbed too quickly
  • Too many neurotransmitters may be deactivated by
    enzymes
  • Too much of a particular neurotransmitter may be released
98
Q

5 important NT

A

dopamine
oxytocin
norepinephrine
endorphins
serotonin

99
Q

a chemical substance produced and released by
nonneural endocrine cells or by neurons

A

hormone

100
Q

hormone exerts regulatory influences on the function of other, distant cells reached via the blood; and it is effective at _____

A

very low concentrations

101
Q

Hormones released by neurons

A

neurohormones

102
Q

neurons and hormones

A

neuroendocrine or
neurosecretory cells

103
Q

Secretory cells may be organized into discrete organs

A

endocrine glands

104
Q

Classification of Hormones

A

steroid hormones
peptide and protein hormones
amine hormones

105
Q

hormones that are synthesized from cholesterol

with examples

A

steroid hormones

steroids, cortisol, aldosterone

106
Q

are structured from chains of amino
acids

with examples

A

Peptide and protein hormones

antidiuretic hormone (ADH), atrial-natriuretic peptide, FSH,
insulin and growth hormone

107
Q

modified amino acids; synthesized
from tryptophan or tyrosine

with examples

A

amine hormones

Melatonin, thyroid, catecholamines
– epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine

108
Q

Types of Endocrine Cells

A

Epithelial endocrine cells -> hormone
Neurosecretory cells -> neurohormones

109
Q

The hypothalamus–posterior pituitary connection illustrates one form of control of endocrine function: neural control of neurosecretory cells

stores and releases hormones (oxytocin, ADH) produced by hypothalamus

A

neurohypophysis

110
Q

In mammalian hypothalamus, the ____, produce oxytocin and
vasopressin and are released into the blood in the
pars nervosa

neurohypophysis

A

paraventricular
nuclei and supraoptic nuclei

111
Q

Anterior pituitary hormones

secretes hormone (ACTH, prolactin, somatotropin) independently

A

adenohypophysis

112
Q

adenohypophysis are categorized into two main
groups according to their target tissues

A

1st group: principal effects on nonendocrine
tissues
2nd group: hormones that control other
endocrine glands

113
Q

adenohypophysis first group example

A

Growth hormone (GH), prolactin, and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MS)

114
Q

adenohypophysis second group example

A

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)/
thyrotropin

115
Q

The ____ is a neurohemal organ in which the axons of several populations of hypothalamic neurosecretory cells terminate. These cells produce neurohormones that control the secretions
of specific groups of anterior pituitary cells.

Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal
system.

A

median eminence

116
Q

Some hypothalamic neurohormones stimulate secretion of hormones and are called

Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal
system.

A

releasing hormones (RHs).

117
Q

inhibit secretion of anterior pituitary hormones

Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal
system.

A

inhibiting hormones (IHs),

118
Q

as providing an interface between the brain and much of the endocrine system.

A

Hypothalamo–hypophysial portal system

119
Q

The posterior pituitary is an ____ of the brain.

The anterior pituitary—although not part of the brain—is under
the ____ of the brain and regulates the functions of many
other tissues, including several endocrine glands

A

extension
control

120
Q

“Neural control of the endocrine system
____, but endocrine control
of the nervous system is also _____”

A

“Neural control of the endocrine system
deserves emphasis, but endocrine control
of the nervous system is also important”

PHYSIO (5 decks)

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