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sarah's biology class > infection and response > Flashcards

infection and response Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

The four types of pathogen:

A

Fungi

Protists

Viruses

Bacteria

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2
Q

Ways of spreading diseases

A

direct contact

water

air

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3
Q

Infections are caused whenever……….

A

Infections are caused whenever a foreign pathogen invades an organism.

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4
Q

_________ can make people immune to infection. The more individuals that are vaccinated, the less likely the disease is to spread.

A

Vaccination can make people immune to infection. The more individuals that are vaccinated, the less likely the disease is to spread.

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5
Q

what are protists?

A

Protists are single-celled eukaryotic organisms (they have a nucleus).

Many are parasites, meaning that they live on or inside other organisms.

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6
Q

how are protists transferred?

A

They are often transferred to the host organism by a vector, such as an insect or mosquito.

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7
Q

how do protists make us feel ill?

A

They make us feel ill by damaging our tissues.

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8
Q

what are viruses?

A

Viruses are tiny, non-living (do not contain cells) particles that can reproduce rapidly within the body.

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9
Q

what are bacteria?

A

Bacteria are small living cells that either damage cells directly or by producing toxins (poisons).

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10
Q

bacteria can reproduce rapidly in what type of conditions?

A

warm, moist areas with a good supply of oxygen.

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11
Q

how do bacteria make us feel ill?

A

The toxins released by bacteria can damage cells and tissues, making us feel ill.

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12
Q

how do viruses make us feel ill?

A

They invade host cells and use them to make new virus particles.
Once the new viruses are made, they cause the cells to burst.
The cell damage makes us feel ill.

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13
Q

synthesised is a synonym for what?

A

made

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14
Q

Name the viral diseases described:

A virus that infects plants. The unique ‘mosaic’ pattern of the discolouration of the plant stunts the growth of the affected plant, as photosynthesis cannot take place.

A

TMV

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15
Q

Name the viral diseases described:

Its symptoms include a fever and red skin rash and it can be fatal if complications arise. Most young people are vaccinated against it.

A

measles

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16
Q

Name the viral diseases described:

Spread by sexual contact or the exchange of body fluids (e.g blood from sharing needles).

A

HIV

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17
Q

examples of viral disease?

A

measles

HIV

TMV

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18
Q

______ are tiny non-living (acellular) particles that can reproduce rapidly within the body.

A

Viruses are tiny non-living (acellular) particles that can reproduce rapidly within the body.

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19
Q

properties of viruses

A

acellular

rapid reproduction

need a host cell to replicate

smaller than 1 mm

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20
Q

Viral Reproduction

A

viruses invade host cells

the virus inserts its own DNA into the host cell’s DNA, which is then copied and is used to make more viruses

once the new virus particles synthesised (made), they cause the cell to burst, releasing the viruses to invade other host cells

the cell damage makes us feel ill

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21
Q

How do HIV and AIDS differ?

A

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) is caused by HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus).

It is the name given to the life-threatening infections that can occur when a person’s immune system has been badly damaged by HIV.

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22
Q

Name the diseases transmitted by bacteria and fungi:

Bacteria spread by sexual contact. A barrier method of contraception, such as a condom, can stop this bacteria spreading from person to person.

A

Name the diseases transmitted by bacteria and fungi:

Gonorrhoea
Bacteria spread by sexual contact. A barrier method of contraception, such as a condom, can stop this bacteria spreading from person to person.

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23
Q

Name the diseases transmitted by bacteria and fungi:

A bacterial disease transmitted by the ingestion of food that has not been cooked properly or has been prepared in unhygienic conditions.

A

Name the diseases transmitted by bacteria and fungi:

Salmonella
A bacterial disease transmitted by the ingestion of food that has not been cooked properly or has been prepared in unhygienic conditions.

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24
Q

Bacteria are small living cells that either damage cells directly or by __________________

A

Bacteria are small living cells that either damage cells directly or by producing toxins (poisons).

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25
Q

what is true of fungi?

A

hyphae

eukaryotic

living

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26
Q

Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms that have bodies made up of _______ (thread-like structures). The hyphae are able to grow and _______ tissues, such as human skin or the surface of plants.

A

Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms that have bodies made up of hyphae (thread-like structures). The hyphae are able to grow and penetrate tissues, such as human skin or the surface of plants.

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27
Q

Protists are often transferred to the host organism by a ______, such as a mosquito or other insect.

A

Protists are often transferred to the host organism by a vector, such as a mosquito or other insect.

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28
Q

Malaria is spread by vectors, such as mosquitos. How can one stop malaria spreading?

A

Malaria is spread by vectors, such as mosquitos. How can one stop malaria spreading?

We can stop malaria from spreading by preventing mosquitoes from breeding and using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten.

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29
Q

How do fungi spread and infect plants and animals?

A

Fungi are unicellular or multicellular organisms that each have bodies made up of hyphae (thread-like structures).

The hyphae are able to grow and penetrate tissues, such as human skin or the surface of plants.

The hyphae produce spores, which can spread to other plants and animals

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30
Q

Functions of white blood cells

A

phagocytosis

produce antitoxins and antibodies

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31
Q

The immune system is made up of lots of different ____________, which each have different functions.

A

The immune system is made up of lots of different white blood cells, which each have different functions.

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32
Q

Non-Specific Defences

A

Mucus

Skin

Tears

Stomach acid

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33
Q

Immune system

A

White blood cells

Phagocytosis

Antibodies

Antitoxins

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34
Q

what are antigens?

A

Antigens
Proteins found on the surface of some cells. They each have a specific shape and act like signals to allow cell recognition.

35
Q

what are antibodies?

A

Antibodies

Have a complementary shape to the antigen and lock onto the pathogen, effectively ‘tagging’ them.

36
Q

antibodies are…

A

protien molecules

37
Q

WBC

A

WBC recognise foreign antigens on the surface of pathogens and produce protein molecules called antibodies

antbodies lock onto the pathogen and ‘tag’ them

ths causes the microorganisms to clump together and other WBC’s to ingest them

38
Q

Antigens are _______ found on the surface of some cells. These antigens each have a specific shape and act like signals to allow cell recognition.

________________ can recognise foreign antigens on the surface of pathogens and produce protein molecules called antibodies.

A

Antigens are proteins found on the surface of some cells. These antigens each have a specific shape and act like signals to allow cell recognition.

White blood cells can recognise foreign antigens on the surface of pathogens and produce protein molecules called antibodies.

39
Q

Vaccination

A

a vaccination injects dead or inactive form of a pathogen into the blood

WBC’s recognise the antigens are foreign and produce antibodies against them

some of the WBC’s produced in response to the vaccination remain in the blood as memory cells

if the same pathogen invades the body again the memory cells will produce antibodies quickly and in larger quantities

the memory cells destroy the pathogen before it can cause illness

40
Q

The main technique that we use to help the immune system to recognise and destroy pathogens is vaccination. Immunising a large proportion of the population will make it very hard for a pathogen to be spread. This is called ___________.

A

The main technique that we use to help the immune system to recognise and destroy pathogens is vaccination. Immunising a large proportion of the population will make it very hard for a pathogen to be spread. This is called herd immunity.

41
Q

Antibiotics can treat:

A

bacterial infections

salmonella

42
Q

Some antibiotics work by …..

A

Some antibiotics work by destroying the cell wall of the bacteria so that they can’t replicate.

43
Q

To help prevent strains of resistant bacteria from developing, antibiotics should be:

A

taken for their complete course

taken for bacterial infections

prescribed only when needed

44
Q

Antibiotic Resistance

A

in a population of resistant bacteria, some will have random mutations(random change in DNA)

this means they are resistant to antibiotics, if we are taking antibiotics these bacteria will survive and non-resistant bacteria will die

the resistant bacteria will reproduce quickly because their competition (the non resistant bacteria) have been killed by the antibiotic

this produces lots of genetically-identical copies of the resistant bacteria

45
Q

Antibiotic resistance comes about partly because of…

A

evolution and mutations (changes in DNA)

46
Q

Nowadays, most drugs are ________ by chemists in the ___________ industry.

A

Nowadays, most drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical industry.

47
Q

the painkiller aspirin originates from …..

A

willow trees

48
Q

the heart drug digitalis originates from …..

A

foxgloves

49
Q

what treats viral infections.

A

antiviral

50
Q

relieves symptoms of an infection

A

painkillers

51
Q

Drugs are tested on three criteria. These are:

A 
1
Toxicity
2
Efficacy
3
Dose
52
Q

In preclinical and clinical testing:

A

low doses of the drug are initially used

tests are first done to human cells

53
Q

Clinical tests are usually double-blind trials. This means that some patients are given the drug, and some are given a _______ (which is an alternative that does not contain any of the drug).

A

Clinical tests are usually double-blind trials. This means that some patients are given the drug, and some are given a placebo (which is an alternative that does not contain any of the drug).

54
Q

Early stage clinical testing is done in laboratories on ____________________ grown in the laboratory.

A

Early stage clinical testing is done in laboratories on human cells and tissues grown in the laboratory.

55
Q

In a ____________, all the conditions are kept identical across the two groups so that only the drug has an impact on a patient’s health.

A

In a double-blind trial, all the conditions are kept identical across the two groups so that only the drug has an impact on a patient’s health.

56
Q

clinical testing

A

is done is laboratories on human cells and tissue and on live animals to work out how toxic a drug is to cells.

this stage involves clinical trials. drugs are tested on healthy volunteers and patients to check that they are safe

if a drug is found to be safe at low doses, there are more clinical trials to work out the optimum dose for the drug

57
Q

_______________ are produced from clones of cells. They are all identical and are complementary to one type of antigen.

A

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from clones of cells. They are all identical and are complementary to one type of antigen.

58
Q

monoclonal antibodies:

A

target certain cells

are identical to each other

59
Q

The first step in producing monoclonal antibodies is to inject a mouse with ………….

A

The first step in producing monoclonal antibodies is to inject a mouse with the chosen antigen obtained from a pathogen.

60
Q

what are common side effects of monoclonal antibodies?

A

they may cause side effects such as fevers, low blood pressure and vomiting when used to treat patients.

61
Q

what’s involved in producing monoclonal antibodies:

A

a mouse

lymphocytes

myeloma

62
Q

Monoclonal antibodies have many uses, but they may cause side effects. These include ______________________________________ when used to treat patients.

A

Monoclonal antibodies have many uses, but they may cause side effects. These include fevers, low blood pressure and vomiting when used to treat patients.

63
Q

Lymphocyte

A

White blood cell taken from the mouse to produce antibodies.

64
Q

Hybridoma

A

Cell which divides rapidly and produces antibodies.

65
Q

antigen

A

Protein on the surface of a cell. It is taken from a pathogen.

66
Q

Tumour

cell

A

Cell which divides rapidly.

67
Q

uses of monoclonal antibodies:

A

Identifying chemicals in blood

Pregnancy tests

Treating diseases

68
Q

Producing Monoclonal Antibodies

A

1) . inject a mouse with the chosen antigen obtained from a pathogen.
2) . mouses immune system responds quickly by producing lymphocytes, that produce the particular antibody
3) . the lymphocytes are extracted from the mouse and fused (combined) with the myeloma (cancer) cells to form hybridoma cells.
4) . the myeloma cells grow rapidly and produce lots of identical cells. all of the hybridoma cells produce the same antibody
5) . these monoclonal antibodies are collected, purified and then can be used to target specific cells and chemicals.

69
Q

synthesis is a synonym of…

A

creation/production

70
Q

Nitrate deficiencies cause stunted growth. This is because ……

A

Nitrate deficiencies cause stunted growth. This is because this ion is needed to produce protein!

71
Q

_______ are needed for the production and synthesis of proteins. Without proteins, plants cannot grow, resulting in ______________.

A

Nitrates are needed for the production and synthesis of proteins. Without proteins, plants cannot grow, resulting in stunted growth.

72
Q

Plant Diseases

A

Viruses
Tobacco mosaic virus

Fungal disease
Rose black spot

73
Q

Ion deficiencies in plants

A

Stunted growth is a result of Nitrates deficiency

Chlorosis is a result of Magnesium deficiency

74
Q

If a plant has a magnesium deficiency, this will result in:

A

lack of glucose

chlorosis

yellow leaves

75
Q

types of organism that infect plants:

A

Insects

Virus

Fungi

76
Q

Name the three categories of plant defence:

A

1
Physical

2
Chemical

3
Mechanical

77
Q

Physical defences of plants

A

Bark (made of dead cells that acts as a barrier, protecting the stem from pathogens and pests (like aphids).)

Waxy cuticle

Cell walls

78
Q

Chemical defenses of plants

A

Antibacterial chemicals (are produced by some plants, such as mint, garlic and witch hazel. They work like antibiotics to prevent the growth of bacteria.)

Poisons (produced by many plants, including foxgloves and deadly nightshade, to deter herbivores.)

79
Q

Mechanical defenses of plants

A

Thorns or hairs (stop animals eating the plants.)

Leaves that close up when touched

Mimicry

80
Q

Greenflies and black flies (both called ____) feed on the ____ (a liquid in plants that stores _______________) in the phloem. This takes sugars away from plants.

A

Greenflies and black flies (both called aphids) feed on the sap (a liquid in plants that stores sugars, salts and amino acids) in the phloem. This takes sugars away from plants.

81
Q

signs of plant disease

A

Stunted growth

Growths

Discolouration

Spots on leaves

Areas of decay

Presence of pests

Malformed stems or leaves

82
Q

What do kits for testing plant disease contain?

A

monoclonal antibodies

83
Q

Methods of Identifying Plant Disease

A

Gardening manual/website

Laboratory

Testing kits

84
Q

To identify a plant’s disease, you may refer to a gardening manual or website, take infected plants to a laboratory to identify the pathogen or use _________ that contain monoclonal antibodies.

A

To identify a plant’s disease, you may refer to a gardening manual or website, take infected plants to a laboratory to identify the pathogen or use testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies.

sarah's biology class (7 decks)

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