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infection and response Flashcards

1
Q

what are the 4 microorganisms

A

bacteria
protists
fungi
viruses

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2
Q

what is the definition of pathogens

A

microorganisms that can cause disease

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3
Q

how do pathogens spread and examples

A

through air (tiny droplets we expel from coughs or sneezes)
eg:flu or measles

through contaminated food or water
eg:cholera or salmonella

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4
Q

what pathogen is spread by direct contact

A

athletes foot-spread by walking bare foot on contaminated surfaces

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5
Q

how do we stop diseases spreading

A

improved hygiene
killing vectors(organisms that transport pathogen)
vaccinations
quarantine

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6
Q

how do viruses colonise and make us feel ill

A

they get inside an organisms cell and use it to clone themselves and burst it making us feel ill- the viruses will spread finding new cells to colonise which is why we feel ill

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7
Q

explain what causes measles/symptoms

A

causes red rash and fever
-can be fatal
spread by infected persons coughs or sneezes

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8
Q

what causes hiv and symptoms an d treatments

A

exchange of bodily fluids(eg blood) and sexual contact

-causes deficient immune system
-fever tiredness and aches for the first few weeks
-when immune system really begins to weaken they can develop aids disease(symptoms can be

unusual infections or cancers

-antiretroviral drugs
if people have taken early on in disease it prevents virus replicating allowing people to live normal lives

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9
Q

what causes tmv/symtoms

A

affects tobacco or tomato plants

-causes discoulored patches on leaves causing mosaic pattern
photosynthesis cant take place in the discoloured patches so plant cant make enough sugars for sufficient growth

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10
Q

how do bacteria make us feel ill

A

they have good food supply in our bodies
they produce toxins which damage our cells/tissues

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11
Q

what is salmonella/symptoms and treatments

A

bacteria that causes food poisoning from any food that has the bacteria

-mostly got from chickens who had it when they were alive

most chickens are vaccinated

-causes fevers/stomach cramps/ vomiting and diahrea

passes with in a week/must stay well hydrated

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12
Q

what is gonohrea an example of /how is it spread/treatments/prevention

A

a bacterial std that is spread from sexual contact

-symtoms are pain when urinating and a thick green or yellow discharge from penis/vagina

-stopped by using barrier methods/avoiding unsafe sex

-use penicillin(many strains have become resistant) or nowadays rarer more expensive antibiotics

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13
Q

what is rose black spot /its symptoms /treatments

A

-fungal disease that causes purple/black spots to form on leaves of plants

leaves turn yellow and drop off
less leaves to get food via photosynthesis and therefore plant does not grow so well

-spreads via water or wind

-treated by chopping off infected leaves and burning
or
spraying plants with fungicides

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14
Q

what is malaria /symptoms/causes and treatments

A

caused by a parasitic protist-which needs a host to survive(eg:human)

-transported between hosts by vectors(mosquito)

spread by mosquitos that feed on infected animals blood and gets malaria parasite and transfers them to healthy host when feeding on them

-symtoms
fevers
headaches

these are callled recurrent episodes if they keep coming back

-prevented by stopping vectors spreading protists
(eg:killing with insecticides/destroying breeding sites/using mosquito nets or repellents)

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15
Q

what is a physical defence against pathogens and what happens when they cant enter

A

skin-pathogens cant get through as it is a physical barrier
it secretes oils and anti-microbial substances which kill pathogens that rest on it

-pathogens that cant get through try to get in through mouth and nose

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16
Q

what is a physical/chemical barriers against pathogens

A

-nose has lots of hairs and mucus which traps pathogens and other particles that try to float through in the air

-if they get through the trachea , bronchi and bronchiole have mucus layer which traps any particless

-there is also enzymes in tears

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17
Q

what are the 2 ways the body can defend itself against pathogens

A

-physical and chemical barriers
-the immune system

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18
Q

what is the role of cilia and how does it link to the stomach

A

tiny finger like structures that protrude from the trachea cells and rythmically move to waft mucus and trapped particles to the back of the throat where we can swallow it down to the stomach which is ph 2 and kills most pathogens

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19
Q

what are 3 functions of white blood cells

A

phagocytosis
producing antitoxins(tiny poisons which damage cells)
produce antibodies

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20
Q

what are antigens

A

any substance the body detects as being foreign(eg cell wall of bacteria)

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21
Q

what is phagocytosis

A

process where white blood cells engulf pathogens by tracking, binding and engulfing them and after this can destroy them

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22
Q

explain the use of antibodies

A

antibodies are small proteins made by wbc that can lock on to these foreign antigens and act as signals telling wbc to come and destroy them

-they can only bind to one antigen(specific)

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23
Q

how do antibodies link to the term immune

A

when the immune system knows which antibodies can bind the pathogen it produced a lot of them and in the future our body will produce so many antibodies the pathogens will be destroyed before they can develop

24
Q

how do vaccines work

A

contains dead or weakened antigens which triggers our bodies to produce antibodies
-they can work against viruses and bacteria

25
pros and cons of vaccine
pros -protect us from diseases -control common disease -prevent (epidemics) cons -dont always work(full immunity) -bad reactions(side effects)
26
what is herd immunity
when enough people in a population are immune to the pathogen it wont have people to spread to then when the host overcomes the disease or dies the pathogen dissapears
27
what are the 2 types of medications
-relieve the systems(eg:painkillers like paracetomol/aspirin) -treat the disease(eg antibiotics)
28
why cant antibiotics work on viruses
made specifically to work on bacteria they wouldnt be able to find viruses as they hide in between our body cells
29
what do antibiotics do to bacteria that painkillers cant
they directly kill or stop bacteria growing in throat but with painkillers these pathogens would still be there
30
what could help to reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance?
Doctors only prescribing antibiotics for serious bacterial infections Patients taking antibiotics for the full prescribed course
31
what is an example of a drug found in nature
-aspirin found in the bark of willow trees -penicillin found /released by fungus which killed colonies of bacteria in a petri dish
32
what are the factors we need to test new drugs
efficacy-how well it works/gives the effect you want eg(antibiotic at killing bacteria) toxicity-(how harmful it is )eg side effects dosage-how much of the drug
33
what links dosage with the toxicity/efficacy of a drug
the higher dosage the more efficacy and more toxicity(side effects)
34
what are the stages of drug testing
preclinical testing with human cells and tissues preclinical testing with live animals mammals like mice then clinical testing
35
explain the 1st stage of drug testing +pros and cons and what happens if the substance looks promising
1)drug is tested on lab grown human cells and tissues -easy and cheap -doesnt tell us much on how it affects whole organism/particular organ we move on to stage 2 if the substance looks promising
36
explain stage 2 of drug testing and what it tells us about overall effect of the drug
1)testing on live animals -similar to human bodies -tells us efficacy and toxicity of drug
37
explain stage 3 of drug testing
1)give drug to healthy volunteers at a low dose 2)slowly increase dose doctors closely monitoring the health of the volunteers(checking for any side effects) to see the max dosage we can give before we start to get side effects 3)give to people suffering and repeat this looking for the optimum dosage(where the efficacy is max and toxixity is minimised)
38
how do we keep these trials fair
-should be blind -use a placebo double blind trials -give half real drug and half placebo so there is no unconscious bias and fake side effects -peer reviewed by other scientists
39
Why is it important for medical trials to be double-blind?
To avoid any bias by the patients and/or researchers If patients know they received the drug they may be more likely to report side effects If researchers know who has been given the real drug then they may pay closer attention to those patients
40
what are monoclonal antibodies
antibodies from a single clone of cells made in labs
41
how do we form monoclonal antibodies
B-lymphocyte cells combine with fast dividing tumour cells to form a hydbridoma which produce antibodies but also divides rapidly which clone producing identical antibodies
42
how do we get b-lymphocyte
inject mouse with antigen and it will produce antigen specific antibodies
43
steps to produce monoclonal antibodies
Inject an animal, like a mouse, with the antigen that we want our antibodies to bind to. Let the animal develop an immune response, and then isolate some of their B-lymphocytes (which will produce the antibody we want). Combine those B-lymphocytes with fast-dividing tumour cells to form hybridoma cells. Let these hybridoma cells divide rapidly in a petri dish. Collect and purify the monoclonal antibodies they produce
44
why are pregnancy tests used
they are cheap,quick and reliable way to see if a woman is pregnant
45
what are nitrates needed for
for making proteins-so for growth so deficiency causes stunted growth
45
how can plants catch diseases
1)from micro-organisms(bacteria) 2)larger organisms(insects) 3)from deficiencies(nitrate/magnesium)
46
what are magnesium ions needed for
making chlorophyll so for photosynthesis so deficiency will cause chlorosis (have yellow leaves)
47
48
what are some other 4 forms of symptoms diseased plants may have
-abnormal lumps/growths -patches of decay -decolouration on leaves -malformed stem/leaves
49
how can you diagnose disease
send sample of diseased plant to a plant pathologist or trial and error eg; give magnesium if u think its a magnesium deficiency
50
what are the 3 types of plant defences
physical chemical mechanical
51
what are some examples of physical defences in a plant
waxy cuticle cellulose cell walls dead cells some plants like bark have around stems
52
what are some chemical defences a plant may have
-anti microbial substances to kill bacteria or fungi -poisons that kill insects
53
what is the meaning of mechanical defences and what are some mechanical defences a plant has
physical defences with a function rather than just a barrier2 -thorns or hairs that stop animals touching or eating them -leaves that curl or droop if insects land pn them -Mimicking other organisms to trick animals
54
Give 5 ways in which plant diseases can be identified.
Compare the symptoms to a gardening manual or website Take the infected plants to a laboratory (plant pathologist) to identify the pathogen Use testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies Test the DNA of the pathogens Use trial and error to test different treatments
55

biology (9 decks)

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