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infection and response Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is a communicable disease

A

a disease caused by a pathogen which can be passed between animals or plants

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2
Q

what is a pathogen

A

a disease-causing microorganisms

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3
Q

how do bacteria cause disease

A

once inside the body, they divide rapidly by binary fission. they kill cells and produce harmful toxins

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4
Q

how do viruses cause disease

A

they invade and reproduce inside living body cells, leading to cell damage

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5
Q

give 3 ways pathogens can be spread

A

air
water
direct contact: common in plant diseases and sexually transmitted infections

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6
Q

4 ways the spread of pathogens can be reduced

A

hygiene
reducing contact
removing vectors
vaccination

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7
Q

why is it especially important to prevent the spread of viral diseases

A

scientists have not yet developed cures for diseases

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8
Q

what is measles

A

measles is a serious viral disease that can cause blindness and brain damage. the main system are a fever and a red skin rash

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9
Q

how is measles spread

A

by air
through inhalation of droplets from coughs and sneezes

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10
Q

what is HIV

A

HIV is a virus which attacks and damages the immune system until it can longer function properly,

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11
Q

what is aids

A

aids is the condition resulting from a long-term HIV infection

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12
Q

how is HIV spread

A

direct sexual contact
exchange of bodily fluids

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13
Q

how can the spread of HIV be prevented

A

use of condoms
screening for blood transfusions
not sharing needles
bottle-feeding by HIV positive mothers
use of drugs

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14
Q

what is tobacco mosaic virus

A

a plant pathogen which causes leaf discolouration when cells are damaged. affected areas cannot photosynthesise, reducing crop yield. as there is no treatment, farmers grow TMV-resistance crop strains to avoid infection

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15
Q

how is tobacco mosaic virus spread

A

contact between infected and healthy plants
insects may act as vectors which transfer the virus between different plants

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16
Q

what is salmonella

A

a type of bacteria found in raw meat, poultry and eggs
if they enter the body via food poising - they can affect natural gut bacteria

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17
Q

symptoms of salmonellae

A

fever
abdominal cramping
vomiting
diarrhoea

possibly could be fatal

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18
Q

how can the spread of salmonella be limited

A

vaccinating animals intended for consumption
keep raw meat away from cooked meat
disinfect hands and surfaces
thoroughly cook meat

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19
Q

what is gonorrhoea

A

a sexually transmitted bacterial infection cause by unprotected sex with an infected individual
early symptoms include yellow and green discharge from genitals and painful urination although it may be symptomless

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20
Q

how is gonorrhoea controlled

A

its spread can be controlled through the use of antibiotics and using condoms

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21
Q

what is rose black spot

A

a fungal disease which causes purple or black spots to develop on rose leaves
reduces the area of the leaf which is available for photosynthesis and causes leaves to turn yellow and drop prematurely

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22
Q

how is the rose black spot fungus spread

A

fungal spores are spread by the wind and in water

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23
Q

how can the rose black spot fungus be treated

A

using fungicides
destroying infected leaves

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24
Q

what is malaria

A

malaria is a disease caused by protist pathogens
the disease is carried from host to host by mosquitoes, and the protists enter the human blood stream when they feed. symptoms include fever and shaking and it may also be fatal in some cases

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25
Q

how can the spread of malaria be reduced

A

using insecticides
using insect nets to avoid bites
prevent mosquito breeding by removing segment water
antimalaria drugs

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26
Q

how does the skin prevent pathogens from entering the body

A

acts as a physical barrier
scab formation after skin is cut or wounded
antimicrobial secretions which can kill pathogens
healthy skin flora complete with pathogens and act as an additional barrier

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27
Q

how does the respiratory system prevent pathogens from entering the body

A

nose: has hair and mucus which traps pathogens
trachea and bronchi: have mucus and traps pathogen. ciliated cells move mucus to the mouth so it can be swallowed

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28
Q

how does the stomach prevent pathogens infecting the body

A

secretes hydrochloric acid
kills any pathogens present

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29
Q

how does phagocytosis protect us against disease

A

white blood cells ingest and destroy pathogens so they cannot infect more cells

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30
Q

how does antibody production protect us against the disease

A

white blood cells produce antibodies which are complementary to specific antigen on a pathogen. the binding of antibodies to antigens causes pathogens to clump together, making them easier to destroy.

31
Q

how does antoxtin production protect us against disease?

A

antitoxins bind to toxins released by pathogens and neutralise them

32
Q

what is a vaccination?

A

contains a dead or inactivated form of the pathogen which stimulates white blood cells to produce complementary antibodies to the pathogen. in the case of second infection, memory cells can rapidly produce the correct antibodies and prevent illnesses

33
Q

what is herd immunity

A

if a sufficiently high proportion of the population are immune to a disease, the spread of the disease will be limited.

34
Q

advantages of vaccinations

A

they have eradicated many deadly diseases
many epidemics can be prevented by vaccinations
herd immunity protects those who cannot have vaccinations

35
Q

disadvantages of vaccinations

A

not always guaranteed to work as they may not work against multiple strains of a pathogen
may have side effects

36
Q

what drugs are used to cure some bacterial diseases

A

antibiotics
kill pathogens inside the body

37
Q

how do antibiotics work

A

antibiotics kill bacterial pathogens inside the body but do not kill human cells
some antibiotics kill a wide range of bacteria, it is important that the right antibiotic is used for a specific bacteria

38
Q

why can antibiotics not be used to treat viral diseases

A

antibiotics have no effect on viral pathogens as they live inside the host’s cells
therefore it is difficult to design drugs that would kill the virus and not destroy human cells at the same time

39
Q

what is antibiotic resistance

A

antibiotic resistance occurs when mutations lead to individual bacteria being resistant to an antibiotic
these bacteria are able to survive, reproduce and pass on their genes, leading to more antibiotic resistant bacteria
this is concerning as some types of bacteria are becoming resistant to all known antibiotics, so the diseases they use cannot be cured

40
Q

how can we prevent antibiotic resistant

A

avoid overuse and unnecessary use of antibiotics
finish antibiotic courses to ensure all bacteria is killed

41
Q

what effect do painkillers have on infectious diseases

A

painkillers only treat the symptoms they do not kill pathogens

42
Q

what plant is the heart drug digitalis extracted from

A

foxgloves

43
Q

what painkiller originates from a compound found in willow bark

A

aspirin

44
Q

what antibiotic was discovered by Alexander Fleming from a type of mould

A

penicillin

45
Q

4 qualities of good medicine

A

effective
safe
stable
able to be taken in and removed easily

46
Q

3 main drug factors used for testing and developing new drugs

A

toxicity
efficiency
dosage

47
Q

how is preclinical testing carried out

A

labs
uses cells, tissues, and live animals

48
Q

how is clinical testing carried out

A

uses healthy volunteers and patients
firstly the drug is tested at a low dose on healthy people, then tested on patients and on a larger scale to find the optimum dose. often one group will be given a placebo and the other group given the real drug to discover the efficiency

49
Q

difference between single-blind and double-blind trial

A

in a single-blind trial, only the doctor knows whether the patient receiving the drug or placebo.
in a double blind trial, neither the patient nor the doctor knows

50
Q

advantage of double blind trial

A

removes bias on the part of the doctor

51
Q

what is peer review

A

where the results of the drug trials are checked over by other scientists knowledgeable in this field

52
Q

what are monoclonal antibodies

A

antibodies that are clones from one parent cell
specific to one type of antigen

53
Q

describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced

A
  • specific pathogen injected into animal (mouse)
  • B-lymphocytes producing complementary antibodies to be extracted
  • b-lymphocytes fuse with tumour cells to form hybridoma cells, they cells can divide quickly and produce an antibody
  • hydridoma cells cultured
  • monoclonal antibodies collected and purified
54
Q

uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

detection of pathogens
location of cancer cells and blood clots
treatment of cancer
used in pregnancy testing kits

55
Q

what do pregnancy kits test for

A

hCG in urine

56
Q

what does a pregnancy test consist of

A

a stick containing monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG
- monoclonal antibodies attached to a blue bead which are free to move
- monoclonal antibodies attached to the test stick

57
Q

describe what happens to the test stick if a women is pregnant

A
  • hCG in urine binds to monoclonal antibodies attached to a blue bead
  • monoclonal antibodies with hCG diffuse up dipstick
  • monoclonal antibodies fixed to the stick bind to hCG
  • blue line forms
58
Q

describe what happens to the test stick of the pathogen is not present

A

no hCG in urine so a blue line is not formed

59
Q

advantage of using monoclonal antibodies to test for pathogens

A

specific to one antigen
very accurate
quick results

60
Q

why can monoclonal antibodies be used to target cancer cells

A

cancer cells have specific antigens caller tumour markers on their membranes
monoclonal antibodies are specific to one type of antigen so can be targeted to tumour markers without damaging other cells

61
Q

describe how monoclonal antibodies can be used to diagnose cancer

A
  • monoclonal antibodies tagged to radioactive substance
  • monoclonal antibodies injected into patients blood stream
  • monoclonal antibodies bind to tumour markers on cancer cells
  • emitting radiation is detected using a specialised scanner enabling doctors to determine the location of cancer cells
62
Q

how can monoclonal antibodies be used to target drugs to cancer cells

A
  • monoclonal antibodies attached to an anti-cancer drug
  • monoclonal antibodies injected into patients bloodstream
  • monoclonal antibodies bind to tumour markers on cancer cells
  • anti cancer drug destroys cancer cells
63
Q

why are cancer treatments that use monoclonal antibodies favoured over traditional treatments

A

radiotherapy and chemotherapy target rapidly dividing cells, health cells are damaged as a consequence producing unpleasant side effects

whereas

monoclonal antibodies target only cancer cells reducing damage to normal cells

64
Q

how can monoclonal antibodies be used to locate blood clots

A

monoclonal antibodies tagged to radioactive substance
monoclonal antibodies bind to specific protein in blood clots
radiation emitted by monoclonal antibodies is detected, enabling the location of blood clots to be found

65
Q

how do aphids cause damage to plants

A

they use their sharp mouth parts to extract sap from the plant phloem, weakening the plant
they are also vectors who can transfer pathogens from diseases plants to healthy plants

66
Q

how to reduce no. of aphids

A

chemical pesticides
biological pest control (ladybirds)

67
Q

why do plants need a good supply of nitrate ions

A

nitrate ions are required to convert sugars into proteins which are required for the plant to grow. as a result, the growth of the plant will be stunted if there is not an adequate supply of nitrates

68
Q

why do plants need a good supply of magnesium ions

A

magnesium ions are required to synthesis chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy during photosynthesis. as a result, the leaves cannot photosynthesis properly and then turn yellow

69
Q

symptoms of disease in plants

A

stunted growth
spotted leaves
decay and rotting
growths
malformation of stems and leaves
discolouration
presence of pests

70
Q

3 ways in which plant disease can be identified

A

reference to gardening websites or manuals
lab testing
monoclonal antibody test kits

71
Q

give examples of physical defence responses used by plants

A

cellulose cell walls
tough waxy outer layer
outside layer on stems
leaf fall

72
Q

give examples of chemical defences used by plants

A

antibacterial chemicals
poisons

73
Q

give examples of mechanical defences used by plants

A

thorns and hairs to deter animals
leaves that drop and curl on contact
mimicry to trick animals

Biology (8 decks)

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