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BIology > INFECTION AND RESPONSE > Flashcards

INFECTION AND RESPONSE Flashcards

1
Q

a pathogen is

health is-

poor health can be caused by pathogens or….x3

pathogens may be….

pathogens can be spread by x3

A

a microorganisms that cause infectious disease- spreads communicable disease

state of mental + physical wellbeing

-poor diet, stress, life situation

virus
bacteria
protists
fungi

-direct contact-eg hiv
-water- drinking/ bathing it
eg cholera spread by drinking water contaminated with sewage of sufferer-
-air-carried in air, in water droplets- then breathed in eg influenza

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2
Q

bacteria make u feel ill by… x3

-difference btwn bacteria and virus

how do viruses cause illness x4

A

reproduce rapidly
producing toxins
that damage tissues

-virus X reproduce by themselves- only reproduce in host cell
-virus much smaller than bacteria (1/100th the size)

-invade host cell
-reproduce rapidly inside host cell using cells machinery
-many viruses in cell-when virus leaves cell- cell bursts- releasing the viruses- the cell dies
-cell damage causes illness

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3
Q

are protists eukaryotes/prokaryotes

-what is a parasite

A

eukaryotes + most are unicellular

-protist that lives on/in organism - causing damage. normally transferred by a vector which doesn’t get the disease.

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4
Q

some multicellular fungi are made of hyphae- what does these thread like structures do-

A

hyphae penetrate human skin + plant surface- cause disease

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5
Q

how can humans prevent spread of pathogens x6

A

-basic hygiene- wash hands(eg prepping food)
-provide clean drinking water-eg chlorine in uk water kill microbes
-reduce direct contact btwn individuals- eg condom
-isolate patients with communicable disease
-vaccination- in uk poultry vaccinated against salmonella
-destroy vectors- insecticides/ destroy habitat

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6
Q

explain the interaction of diseases x4

A

-ppl w/ a disease eg hiv more likely to get an infectious disease
hiv causes defective immune system
-one disease can be the cause of another-
eg hpv common but can cause cerbvical cancer in some ppl
-some diseases can be triggered by immune system- body infected with pathogen- immune system fights it but triggers an allergy
-physical illness can lead to mental illness eg depression

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7
Q

2 viral diseases in humans
-can antibiotics kill viruses

A

measles
hiv
-no (Viruses don’t have cell walls that can be attacked by antibiotics-surrounded by protective protein coat)

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8
Q

MEASLES
-symptoms
-how is it spread

-is measles serious

-are ppl vaccinated- if so when

-what can measles lead to- x2

A

-fever then also red skin rash
-by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs of infected person
-yes, can be fatal if complications arise
-most vaccinated when young bcse its serious illness
-inflammation of the brain
-pneumonia- lung infection

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9
Q

HIV
-symptoms
-how is it spread

-How can it be controlled

-what does HIV do if not controlled
-what is late stage HIV

-another name for late stage HIV
-whats dangerous about late stage HIV

A

-flu like illness- goes after few weeks
-sexual contact-unprotected/ exchange of body fluids eg HIV infected blood, when druggies share needles
-antiretroviral drugs which stop virus replicating
-attacks immune system
-immune system severely damaged so white blood cells can no longer destroy pathogen- cannot fight infections others easily can or cancers
-AIDS
-can easily contract infections (like tb) and may develop cancer

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10
Q

-pros of antiretroviral drugs x2

-con

A

-stop virus multiplying so immune system isn’t damaged
-don’t develop aids- live normal life expectancy
-not a cure- must always be taken

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11
Q

2 bacterial diseases
-are these communicable or non

A

salmonella
ghonorrea
-communicable

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12
Q

SALMONELLA
-what is salmonella

-how is it spread x2

-give an example

-what do the salmonella bacteria do

-symptoms x4

what is done to prevent spread of salmonella in uk

A

-food poisoning

-ingesting food contaminated w/ salmonella bacteria
-or on food (that got contaminated when) prepared in un-hygenic conditions
-same chopping board for raw chicken and other food w/out cleaning it
-secrete toxins that cause symptoms
-fever
-abdominal cramps
-vomiting
-diarrhoea

-poultry are vaccinated against salmonella (so we don’t eat infected chicken)

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13
Q

GONORRHOEA
-what type of disease is this
-how is it spread
-symptoms x2

-how was it treated-y not now

-How can spread be controlledx2

A

STD
-sexual contact
-thick yellow discharge from vagina/penis
-pain on urinating

-EASILY treated w/ antibiotic PENICILLIN - many resistant strains appeared
- treatment w/ antibiotics
ppl who do unprotected sex tested and treated w/ antibiotics to kill it
-use barrier method of contraception

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14
Q

MALARIA
-what pathogen causes malaria
-is it communicable
-is it serious
-what does it cause
-describe how malaria’s spread-4 steps

-why is the mosquito a vector

-how to control spread of malaria x3

A

.
-protists
-yes
-yes- can be fatal
-recurrent episodes of fever
*mosquito(the vector) bites infected person
*malaria pathogen passes into mosquito
*mosquito bites another person
*passes pathogen-protist into their blood vessels
-carries pathogen from person to person

-prevent mosquitos-vectors- breeding
They breed in still water eg ponds- drain still water
-mosquito nets to avoid being bitten( can also spray net w/ insecticides)
-spray insecticides at areas of still water

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15
Q

Job of non specific defence system
non specific defence systems- x4

A

-prevent pathogens entering
skin
nose
trachea+bronchi
stomach

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16
Q

how does skin protect against pathogensx4

A

skin-
-protective layer
-produce sebum(antimicrobial substance) kills bacteria

-outer layer has dead cells- hard for pathogens to penetrate
-when skins damaged- scabs over

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17
Q

how do: protect against pathogens
Nose
Lungs x2

A

-nose- hairs and mucus trap pathogens/(particles that contain pathogens) before they enter respiratory system
*if pathogens make it past nose to lungs
-trachea+ bronchi secrete mucus to trap pathogens
-trachea and bronchi lined w/ tiny cillia- waft mucus towards throat to be swallowed into stomach

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18
Q

how does stomach protect against pathogens

A

-contains hydrochloric acid- kills pathogens bfore they go into digestive system

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19
Q

2 main things the immune system does

  • 3 functions of white blood cells
A

-destroys pathogens+ toxins they produce
-protects if same pathogen invades again
-phagocytosis
-antibody production
-antitoxin production

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20
Q

phagocytosis process x3

A

-wbc phagocyte detects chemicals released by pathogen
- moves to pathogen+ binds to them, engulfs pathogen
- pathogen is destroyed using enzymes
(harmless broken down product leaves phagocyte)

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21
Q

what are antibodies

  • describe how antibodies are produced- what happens
    x3
    .
    .
    .
    .
    .
    .
    .

why will 1 type of antibody not protect against all pathogens

why are antibodies useful in longrun-

-

A

-protien molecules produced by wbc
-stick to pathogen

-evry pathogen has unique antigens on surface
-when wbc comes across foreign antigen- produce antibodies
-antibodies lock onto pathogens so they can be found and destroyed by other wbc
(-antibodies rapidly produced + carried around body to find all similar bacteria/viruses)

-antibodies are specific to that type of antigen- 1 lymphocyte will only produce antibody against a specific pathogen

-remain in blood for long time- protect if we get infected w/ same pathogen
body can make them again rapidly

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22
Q

what do antitoxins do

A

bind to toxin molecules produced by invading bacteria and prevent them from damaging cells- counteract toxins

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23
Q

TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS
-is it rare or widespread
-what species of plant does it affect
-what does tmv cause

-what is the effect of this

A

-widespread
-many species incl. tomatoes
-distinct mosaic pattern of discoloration on leaves
-rate of photosynthesis reduced so growth of plant is reduced

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24
Q

Rose black spot
what is it caused by
-what does rose black spot cause

-what is the effect of this

-how is rose black spot spread

-how to treat rose black spot x2

A

fungus
-purple/black spots develop on leaves- often turn yellow and drop early
-less photosynthesis so rate of growth decreases
-spread in environment by water/ wind
-spray w/ fungicides- kill fungi
-remove+ destroy affected leaves so fungus cant spread

25
Q

vaccination involves-

why is it done-

A

introducing small amount of dead/inactive form of pathogen into body to stimulate the wbcs to produce antibodies.
If same pathogen re enters, wbcells react quickly to produce correct antibodies- preventing infection

26
Q

when white blood cells are stimulated to produce antibodies, what else happens- why is this useful

A

-wbc divides by mitosis
-copies of wbc remain in blood
-if pathogen re enters- the wbcells can produce correct antibody quickly-
immune system remembers the specific antibody needed for specific antigen

27
Q

what is herd immunity

A

large amount of population vaccinated- unvaccinated ppl not likely to catch disease bcse fewer ppl can pass it on

28
Q

pros of vaccine x2

A

-help control spread of communicable diseases
-epidemics can be prevented if large amount of pop are vaccinated

29
Q

cons of vaccines x2

A

-dont always work- give immunity
-sometimes you can have a bad reaction (eg swelling/fever) -but this is rare

30
Q

-what do painkillers and other drugs do
-what are antibiotics+what do they do
-why don’t antibiotics or other drugs kill viruses

A

treat symptoms of disease (by relieving pain) but don’t kill pathogens
-medicines that help cure bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside body
-viruses live + reproduce inside body cells- hard to develop drugs that kill viruses w/out damaging body tissue

31
Q

-what is penicillin
-why is the emergence of antibiotc resistant strains a concern
-important thing to remember when prescribing antibiotics for bacterial disease
-pro of antibiotics

A

-first antibiotic discovered
-in future bacterial diseases will become hard to treat
-specific bacteria treated with specific antibiotics

-greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases

32
Q

how do lymphocytes from antibodies help kill pathpogen
- 3 ways

-what are B-lymphocytes

A

1- cause reactions where enzymes split open pathogen cell membrane
2- makes it easier for phagocytes to find pathogen
3-makes pathogens stick together- easier for phagocytosis

  • wbc that produce antibodies
33
Q

-what happens once the body figures out which type of antibody is needed

how does this cause immunity
–5 points.

A

-memory cells-specific copies of the lymphocyte needed are produced when
the white blood cell divide by mitosis
-copies / memory cell stay in blood for decades
-If pathogen enters body again, body can immediately produce needed antibodies
-you won’t get sick from the pathogen a second time
-this is immunity

34
Q

plants produce chemicals to defend themselves, we use these chemicals as drugs
-what is the heart drug- where is it extracted from
-what is the painkiller that is extracted from a tree
-what antibiotic was discovered by alexander fleming and where was it extracted from

A

.
.
.
-heart drug digitalis extracted from foxgloves
-painkiller aspirin extracted from willow tree (used to lower fever)
-penicillin extracted from microorganism , discovered in the penicillium mould

35
Q

describe how fleming discovered penicillin

A

he was clearing out petri dishes containing bacteria
-noticed one dish had mould on it and area around mould was free of bacteria
-that mould was producing penicillin - which killed bacteria

36
Q

how are most drugs made

3 main stages of drug testing

3 things that are tested for

A

most drugs synthesised by chemists in pharmaceutical industry- starting point may be a chemical extracted from a plant
-preclinical-tested on human cells and tissues
-next preclinical step- test on live animals
-clinical test on human volunteers

-toxicity- if its safe for humans
-efficacy- if it treats the disease/ has effect you want
-dosage- concentration given and how often

37
Q

described what happens in preclinical

-what are the guidelines for animal testing

-downsides x2

A

-tested IN LAB on cells/ tissues-
-AND live animals to test efficacy,dose,toxicity

  • new drug must be tested on 2 different live mammals

-down side is can’t use tissues/cells to test drug that affects whole body/ many systems

-ppl think its cruel to animal test- others think safest way to make sure drug isn’t dangerous

(some ppl think animal so different to human- pointless to animal test)

38
Q

clinical testing happens if…

1-First stage of clinical testing

2- If drug is successful in first stage

3-stage

what is optimum dose

A

drug passes preclinical animal test

-very LOW doses given to HEALTHY volunteers to check drug is SAFE on normal working body.
-amount gradually increased-

-if drug found to be safe, clinical testing continues to find optimum dose
- test on ppl w/ illness

-double blind trial (or blind) with a placebo

-optimum dose- dose that’s most effective with fewest side effects

39
Q

what is a placebo-

-why is a placebo given

how does a double blind trial work

-pro of double blind trial

A

a substance that’s like the drug eg tablet/injection with no active drug in it- has no effect

-so can find out actual difference the drug makes- allows for the placebo effect- patient expects treatment to work so feel better

-patients put randomly in 2 groups.
-one given new drug
-other given placebo
-patient and doc X know which is placebo

-Stop bias-doctors monitoring patients and analysing results aren’t subconsciously influenced by knowledge + X pay more attention to ppl getting real drug

40
Q

what’s peer review

why are results from double blind trials only published after peer review

A

other scientists check that the work is valid and carried out rigorously

  • prevent false claims
41
Q

How can bacteria become resistant
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
common strain of antibiotic resistant bacteria-

how to reduce chance of antibiotic resistance- x3

problem with developing new antibiotics

A

-a mutation can make a bacterium resistant
-the antibiotic kills all Xresistant strains, NOT the resistant bacteria
-the resistant strain of bacteria survives and reproduces w/ no competition.
-population of resistant strain increases- natural selection
-resistant strain spreads- ppl not immune + no effective treatment

-MRSA- (resistant to strong meticillin antibiotic)

-not over-prescribe antibiotics or prescribe them for a virus
-patients complete FULL course- so all bacteria killed- none survive to mutate into resistant strains
-restrict use of antibiotics in farming- usually used to prevent animals developing bacterial disease

-timely
-costly
-antibiotic resistant bacteria constantly emerge- hard to keep up

42
Q

lymphocytes produce antibodies against….

-how are monoclonal antibodies made -6 points

A

anything the body detects as foreign(an antigen)

-inject mouse with chosen antigen- mouse lymphocytes stimulated to produce particular antibodies
-collect lymphocytes and combine with/fuse with tumour cell
-This hybridoma cell can divide by mitosis and produce antibodies
-select single hybridoma cell(producing the antibody we want) and allow to divide/clone to produce many identical hybridoma cells
-These cells all produce the same antibodies- we call these antibodies monoclonal antibodies
-large amount of monoclonal antibodies collected and purified

43
Q

-monoclonal antibodies are created from…
-the monoclonal antibodies are specific to ….
-the benefit of this is that monoclonal antibodies

why are the lymphocytes fused with a tumour cell

A

a single clone of hybridoma cells (lots of clones of a single wbc)
-one binding site on one protien antigen
-target a specific chemical / specific cells in the body

  • the lymphocytes will X divide by mitosis but produce antibody
    -tumour cell divide by mitosis rapidly but X produce antibody
44
Q

4 uses of monoclonal antibodies

can they be produced against any type of antigen-

A

-diagnosis- pregnancy tests
- in labs- measure level of substances in blood/ detect pathogens
-in research- locate/ identify molecules in cell/tissue using fluorescent dye
-treat some diseases-eg cancer by binding to radioactive substance/drug

yes

45
Q

what hormone is found in preg women urine-

  • 2 parts of pregnancy test
    .
    .
    .

what happens if preg woman wees on pregnancy test - 5 points
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

why do most pregnancy tests have 2 blue lines for a positive result

A

-Hormone HCG produced by placenta of fetus
-only found in preg womens urine
-2 parts-
#1- where u wee- has blue beads attached to monoclonal antibodies specific to HCG
#2 - test strip- has monoclonal antibodies specific to HCG that are FIXED to test strip- they bind to HCG

-if preg woman wees-
-HCG binds to antibodies on blue beads
- when blue beads flow over test strip, the HGC they are carrying binds to the fixed antibodies
- blue beads also get stuck in place
-by trapping loads of beads- strip looks blue- positive test

-second line acts as a control
-normally need two for a positive result

46
Q

what happens if non preg woman wees on pregnancy test
.
.
.
.
pros of a pregnancy test x3

A

-urine washes beads w/ the attached antibodies over fixed antibodies on other end
-nothing to stick the blue beads onto the test strip

-cheap
-easy to use
-highly accurate

47
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in labs

-pro of using them in these cases

A

-measure level of hormones / chemicals in blood-(eg person lacks energy-may have low level of certain hormones)
-detect pathogens in blood- eg a virus
-completely specific to what we are looking for

48
Q

-what are monoclonal antibodies used for in research

-describe how monoclonal antibody used in that way - 4 3 points

A

-to locate/ identify specific molecules in a cell/ tissue by binding to fluorescent dye

-monoclonal antibody made that binds to molecules you’re looking for
-antibodies bound to fluorescent dye
-if those molecules are present, antibodies will attach to them, we can see the location using the dye

49
Q

how are monoclonal antibodies used to treat diseases - 4 points
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

-advantage of this
.
.
.
.
.
how do cancer cells grow
.
-how are the antibodies delivered to the patient

A

(-cancer cells have antigens on cell membranes called Tumour markers(not found on normal bodycells))
-monoclonal antibodies specific to cancer cells (that bind to the tumour markers) are made
-monoclonal antibodies bound to either: (anti-cancer drugs)
radioactive substance,
toxic drug,
toxic chemical
-antibody attaches to cancer cells and chemical/drug stops cells growing and dividing

-delivers drug to cancer cell w/out harming other cells in body (bcse the antibodies only bind to the tumour markers)

-cancer cells undergo uncontrolled mitosis and spread around body

  • through a drip
50
Q

problems w/ monoclonal antibodies

  • pro of using monoclonal antibodies to treat cancer instead of chemo/radio therapy
A

-create more side effects than originally expected
*fever
*vomiting
*low blood pressure
-in certain drug trials they caused very harmful side effects
-so not as widely used as everyone hoped when first developed

-they can affect normal body cells as well as kill cancers
monoclonal antibodies target specific cells-
-side effect of an antibody based drug lower than chemo/radio therapy

51
Q

how can you detect plant diseases x7

A

-stunted growth
-growths

-areas of decay
-spots on leaves
-discolouration

-pests
-Mallformed leaves/stems

52
Q

-how can identification be made x3

A

-reference to gardening manual/ website
-take infected plant to lab to identify pathogen
-using testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies

53
Q

-what do aphids do
-what is the effect

-are insects pathogens

A

-extract nutrients eg sugars from plant
- cause stunted growth

-no, X cause infectious disease

54
Q

what 2 ions do plants need- why

-what can a lack of either do

The understanding of ion deficiencies allows…..

A

-nitrates
-needed in protien synthesis (to make protiens)
therefore for growth
LACK= stunted growth

-magnesium
-needed for making chlorophyll
needed for photosynthesis
LACK= chlorosis - lose green colour- yellow leaves

-horticulturists to provide optimum conditions for plants

55
Q

3 types of plant responses

A

*physical defense responses
- resist invasion of microorganisms
*chemical defense responses
*mechanical adaptations

56
Q

3 physical plant defence responses

A

-cellulose cell wall
*physical barrier difficult for microorganisms to penetrate
-tough waxy cuticle
*barrier-difficult for microorganism to penetrate- protect from attack
-layers of dead cells around stems (bark on trees) which falls off
*barrier of entry to microorganisms

57
Q

3 mechanical adaptations

A

-Thorns and hairs to deter animals
*Thorns directly protect plant from being eaten
*hairs irritate mouth of herbivore- hard to eat

-leaves which droop/ curl when touched
*prevent themselves being eaten- knock off insects /move away
*scare herbivores- not used to plants that move

-Mimicry to trick animals
*Tricks animal into not eating them
- dead white nettle looks like stinging nettle
-passion flower has spots- looks like butterfly eggs- stops others laying eggs
-some look like rocks/ pebbles

58
Q

2 chemical plant defence responses

A
  • antibacterial chemicals
    *kill bacteria- prevent them attacking plant -eg mint/witch hazel
    -poisons to deter herbivores
    *from grazing on plant - eg tobacco plants,fox glove, night shade

BIology (11 decks)

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