Industrialisation, Urbanisation and the Environment

Question 1

industrialisation

Answer 1

•refers to the transition whereby the methods of production change, w accompanying social and cultural change

Question 2

industrialisation of the west

Answer 2

•br. fist country to industrialise (around 1750-1850) w other countries (france, usa) soon following
•ind. involved ‘total change’ involving all aspects of society - polanyi called it a ‘total transformation
•around 1.5% of uks pop work in agriculture

Question 3

import substitution industrialisation (isi)

Answer 3

•1950s and 60s - third world countries tried isi (ind. strat to produce goods for their own domestic market, in comp. w imports from developed world) - usually involved state setting up industries and protecting them by putting high tariffs/complete bans on imported goods
•countries that attempted isi on large scale - mexico, india, brazil - india has own car industry, ambassador car for sale rather than export and protected from foreign competition

Question 4

results of isi

Answer 4

•isi led to some develop. in latin amer, not widely successful - maj. problem was saving from dom. production of goods were balanced by costs of importing the necessary raw materials (hewitt, 2000)

Question 5

why do neoliberals argue abt isi

Answer 5

•protection of ‘infant industries’ through tariffs on imports leads to inefficiency and lack of innovation and therefore isi couldn’t be successful in long term

Question 6

export-orientated industrialisation (eoi)

Answer 6

•1970s - shift towards eoi (ind. strat based on production for export), had already been achieved by japan’s - produced goods cheaply and succeeded in marketing them in developed world
•eoi - south k, taiwan, singapore

Question 7

what did the eoi counties become known as

Answer 7

•became known as ‘newly-industrialising countries’ (nics - those that seemed to make rapid progress in late 20th century) and ‘asian tigers’
•protected their industries in early stages of develop. states provided considerable support to companies

Question 8

why is it a harder for other countries to industrialise

Answer 8

•success of japan and each subsequent state country seems to make it harder for other countries to succeed bcs the world market is always under the control of developed countries - few opportunities left tot exploit
•influence of neoliberal economics means that countries are under pressure to allow free trade rather than protest their infant industries

Question 9

an example of eoi working better than isi

Answer 9

•north and south korea divided at end of ww2 - north follows isi, south eoi
•south k today many times wealthier than north and achtes much more highly on measures such as expectancy

Question 10

agriculture as industry

Answer 10

•strength of most developing countries is agriculture, especially those in tropical zones having good conditions to grow crops to export to the west
•also been the main way of life for many, export of cash crops created during colonial period - great agr. v much like an industry in order to increase production and to meet standards required by western consumers
•production often controlled by tnc’s

Question 11

green revolution

Answer 11

•started in 1960s - based on new high-yield varieties and enabled production and increased substantially
•scientific and tech. develop. that improved agr. yields, enabled more food to be produced in developing countries
•does require ever greater use of environmentally damaging fertilisers and pesticides

Question 12

new opportunities for industry

Answer 12

•gl. opened up new opportunities for developing industries, notable global communication technology to process data/develop software for customers in rich countries
•many developing countries have taken up technologies e.g. mobile phone use in africa has grown quickly

Question 13

technological leapfrogging

Answer 13

•refers to the use of a new technology when the prev. tech has not been used
•often older version of new tech was less efficient and more polluting and the newer version is more sustainable
•e.g. adoption of mobile phones w/o widespread use of land-line telephones

Question 14

tourism

Answer 14

•international tourism a huge industry often seen as third largest industry in world - non-western destination have grown in popularity e.g. small west african nation of the gambia relies heavily on it
•range of diff strategies for developing ind. that can be adopted

Question 15

what are the problems with the idea of a country having a development strategy

Answer 15

•can involve adopting the latest fashion whether or not it’s appropriate or likely to work
•usually adopted by an elite and its main purpose may even be to mine their own pockets
•any strategy will have diff outcomes for diff groups but those involved are not usually consulted - ind. needs factory workers who will have persuaded to leave agr. livelihood and move to city

Question 16

what does moore (1967) argue

Answer 16

•there is no evidence to show that any population anywhere ever wanted ind.
•ind. favoured by members of emerging mc who saw opportunities for enrichment and to take power from rulers of pre-industrial society
•e.g. swing riots in 1830s britain bcs it would end trad. br. livelihood and destroy communities

Question 17

how did polanyi describe the great transformation

Answer 17

•as a struggle between those who wanted to est. the market as the organising principle of society and those who wanted to protect themselves, land and livelihoods against new market forces
•ind. requires one generation to pay a heavy social and environmental price in order for their descendants to benefit

Question 18

urbanisation

Answer 18

•the process by which a growing prop. of ppl live in towns and cities and the changes which accompany this process
•2007 - first time more than half worlds pop. living in cities
•urban pop. expected to grow nearly twice the rate of growth of pop. as a whole
•rural pop. expected to remain stable overall w some variations based on region
•occurs as a result of migration/smaller settlements growing until classified as cities

Question 19

what do mt believe ant urbanisation

Answer 19

•look back to model of western develop. see growth of cities as an essential part of econ. growth - cities provide labour force concentrated in one place for factories and businesses, also imp. in promoting cultural change bcs removes ppl from countryside (trad ways strongest) and expose them to western values
•expect urb. to be essential part to econ. and cultural change leading to develop.

Question 20

how is urbanisation different for developing countries today

Answer 20

•third world cities tend to be bigger and fewer - often a primate city (larger than any other cities in the country)
•urb. has not been accompanied by ind. - city dwellers often make a living from informal sector work rather than being formally employed
•poor in growing western cities in 19th century formed a proletariat, working in factories and workshops and often organised trade unions - fanon argues said that the v marginality made them potentially rev. - not widely shared for developing world bcs few strong political movements have arisen

Question 21

what do dt argue

Answer 21

•colonialism has made it impossible for developing countries to follow in the footsteps of the developed world
•urb. in developing countries fundamentally diff bcs it’s not response to ind. - mangy est./her dramatically under colonial rule bcs they were used as administrative centres and as staging posts in exports of raw materials and cash crops - two tiered social system grew colonial and high ranking natives enjoying higher stan. if live.
•argue that characteristics have not changed under neo-colonialism as tnc’s have replaced colonial powers - cities play key role in keeping countries underdeveloped and using resources in unprod. ways

Question 22

urban housing in developing countries

Answer 22

•no. of ppl in cities far exceeds no. of jobs available leaving many un/underemployed -poor usually have no access to regular housing so build their own and often in illegally occupied land and gov usually see them as problems so residents live under constant threat of homes being demolished

Question 23

what is urb. housing like in developing countries

Answer 23

•temporary and low quality but over time more permanent feature created w residents acting together to arrange resources and amenities
•often viable solution to ppls problems - providing accommodation they can afford close to sources of income
•spontaneous settlements also offer new arrivals in city a foothold - can encourage self help and collective action
•access to water, sanitation, education, health and other resources limited, residents often unable to vote (no legal address) and vulnerable to exploitation

Question 24

migration

Answer 24

•often explained using ‘push pull theory’ which focuses on rational decisions to move made by in. (push - disad. of rural life that push ppl to cities. pull - adv. if city life that attract ppl to move there)
•influx of large no. of ppl w/o steady incomes contributes to urban squalor

Question 25

step migration

Answer 25

•common - ppl move from a rural area to a town to a city and perhaps onto developed world
•migration often seasonal - migrants retain close links w rural family members and return home to help harvest
•but ppl often move in groups or settle w members of same group, may also move bcs if social forces e.g. pov. and inequality

Question 26

differences between urban and rural poverty in developing countries

Answer 26

•ppl in cities usually closer to facilities and services than those in rural areas - doesn’t mean they have access to them
•developing countries - living conditions of poor often worse than those who live in rural areas - overcrowding, contaminated water, poor/absent sanitation, threat of floods/landslide and indoor pollution
•water now usually privatised - result of free market policies and saps, pipes water on provided to some, poor have to buy water from vendors
•rural - more likely to have access to natural water supplies, generally not priv owned so free to all - also have benefit of family living in cities sending some of their earnings

Question 27

cities and environment

Answer 27

•often seen as main source of poll. and greenhouse gas emission - having large no. of ppl and industries in one place makes it easier to bring in new environmental regulations and lowers the cost of delivering water, sanitation and healthcare
•cities also provide opportunities to change the way ppl live more quickly - designs that favour public transport etc

Question 28

the environment - context

Answer 28

•human activity changed enviro - concern abt human effects on enviro can be seen in romantic movement in 19th century which celebrated nature and deplored new ind. landscape of air and water was a serious threat to health - envro became important political issue, intimately linked w econ. growth and develop.

Question 29

sustainable development

Answer 29

•brundtland commission set up by un highlighted rel. between develop. and enviro, coing term ‘sustainable develop.’ - develop. that met the needs of the present w/o compromising ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Question 30

how will further environmental degradation be caused

Answer 30

•econ. growth and ind. that developing counties are trying to achieve will cause this further if practiced in same way as west
•china has large reserves of coal and will use them to meet its citizens energy needs despite contribution to global warming

Question 31

what are environmental issues seen as now

Answer 31

•global but both cause and effects are unequally distributed between regions of the world - consumerist lifestyle of developed world and greater energy and fuel use mean that it creates and worsens many problems
•ppl in developed world have much large eco footprints than those in developing - consume more resources and have greater impact on enviro
•poorer least responsible for enviro but most affected - live on land liable to flooding, close to sources of pollution and can’t afford to move anywhere else

Question 32

environmental problems in developed world

Answer 32

•different to that of south
•focus on issues such as global warming, deforestation and conserving habitats

Question 33

environmental problems in developing world

Answer 33

•concern abt affects of tnc’s, uneven trade and western consumerism in making it difficult for developing countries to avoid problems
•pressure to attract investment from tnc’s leads some to weaken environmental controls (e.g. less stringent controls on pollution)
•tnc cash crop production, employing few workers, pushing small farmers into marginal land

Question 34

what have some southern environmentalists accused the north of

Answer 34

•using environmental concerns as a cover for its own interest w internat. agreements that appear fair often seeming in practice to allow tnc’s to carry on w unsustainable practices
•emphasis in dev. countries on recycling can have neg impact - poorer countries often dependant on use of natural resources - recycling scrap metals reduces demand for these

Question 35

people centred approach to development

Answer 35

•advocates sustainable develop. practices e.g. appropriate tech - involved use of renewable local resources w minimal environmental impact - wind up pcd and radios remove the need for electricity generation, food in africa can be stored and kept fresh in pot in pot refrigeration that need power

Question 36

neoliberal view on environment

Answer 36

•see solution of enviro problems in extension of free market - cap may have contributed to enviro problems but nature as an unprecedented growth machine mean that it will generate solutions - issues will be solved as costs rise creating incentives to develop more enviro. acceptable alt

Question 37

neoliberal view on environment - solution

Answer 37

•solution referred to as ‘technological fixes’ - most sceptical abt them - enviro problems have roots in comped social and econ. contexts so a ‘fix seems too easy’
•fix has come from pursuit of greater wealth by in. or corporations when most enviro. wouldn’t prefer collaborative effort

Question 38

what do neoliberals also advocate for

Answer 38

•privatisation/commodification of public goods, extending market into areas it has not reached before
•claim that owners would act as custodians and would promote sustainable use bcs it’d make econ. sense

Question 39

neo-malthusians and mt on environment

Answer 39

•influenced by writings of thomas malthus, concerned by implications for enviro on population growth espe, developing countries
•those whose damage to enviro who most needs curbing are poor ppl in developing countries espec in rural areas - pov leads them to degrade enviro bcs short term needs mean they use available resources, pop growth contributes to this, means marginal lands had to be farmed w loss of soil and desertification
•view has been adopted by writers following mt approaches - sees problem as being internal to developing countries

Question 40

anti-malthusians and dt view on environment

Answer 40

•ppl whose damage to enviro most needs curbing are wealthiest ppl on planet bcs they consume a far greater share of resources an generate far more waste than poor ppl do
•would point to fact that exploit. of developing world resources is for the benefit of consumers in north

Question 41

what is another problem other than population for am and dt

Answer 41

•consumption - unequal globe distribution of resources is real underlying issue - fits w dt w its emphasis on seeing the kribkrns in the fjntect if an unequal global system
•malthusians argue that developed world consumers must reduce their consumption levels and their ecological footprints
•environmentalists argue that this would allow some econ. growth in south - necessary to achieve acceptable living standards but disagree on how much growth is possible/desirable