Globalisation

Question 1

globalisation - context

Answer 1

•end of cold war and collapse of soviet union (1989)
•together w rapid changes in communications tech, made possible for the spread of free market capitalism which has imposed on many developing countries through structural adjustment programmes and pressure to get debt relief

Question 2

globalisation - definition

Answer 2

•refers to several connected changes that have made the lives of ppl around the world more global
•includes faster and more frequent communications, more travel, more trade and develop. of global organisations supporting them
•cohen and kennedy (2000) - refers to increasing interconnectedness and interdependency of world nations
•within approach - pos. globalist theories and neg. ones

Question 3

globalisation - definition in the context of capitalism

Answer 3

•can also mean the globalisation of capitalism/free market, accompanied by democratic freedoms and greater consumerism
•in this sense, gl. strongly supported by neoliberals but opposed by dt and radicals - can be seen as creating greater inequalities within and between nations, as well as greater wealth

Question 4

alternative globalisation

Answer 4

•if gl. is seen as creating greater inequalities, this is what can be accompanying it
•includes global movements such fair trade, gender equality and human rights, based on ideas that have globalised
•spread of demand for greater political freedoms e.g. arab spring of 2011
•gl. can be seen as having cultural, political and economic dimensions

Question 5

what is one way of looking at gl.

Answer 5

•as a ‘historical process’
•arguments of globalist theories surround 4 processes

Question 6

changes in the concept of time and space

Answer 6

•giddens (1990) says this means that communication can take place through tv as if ppl occupied the same space - is pos. abt this interaction
•baudrillard (1998) - tv watcher only watches a representation of a representation (they’re watching a simulation) where the origins of the original event are lost - more sceptical abt the process that ppl can learn anything ‘true’
•marxists - access to tv, internet or even phone in non-existent and mass travel is only available to globalising class so are pessimistic in what develops is a globalising class and a non-globalising class

Question 7

interdependent economies

Answer 7

•views the globe as a single fully integrated global economy based on the new international division of labour
•arguments here surround increasing power of tnc’s and global ins. e.g. world bank, wto

Question 8

increasing cultural interaction

Answer 8

•in. consume i dread and experiences from a whole variety of cross cultural sources

Question 9

increasing shared problems

Answer 9

•unemployment can be caused by events miles away e.g. collapse of dubious lending practices in america led to financial crisis of 2007/8 which impacted many countries including uk
•environmental problems e.g. the climate emergency, exploitation of the wilderness for factory production can help new pathogens emerge causing global pandemics

Question 10

ev. for economic gl

Answer 10

•there is now a single fully integrated global econ based on new international division of labour (frobel et al, 1980) w growing trade and econ. connections between diff parts of world
•has replaced ‘trad’ divisions of labour that had been est. during colonial period w colonies providing raw materials for industries in colonising powers w industries within colonies being discouraged

Question 11

the new international division of labour

Answer 11

•new global econ. order said to be produced by factory production moving from the developed world to some developing countries - manufacturing takes place in developing world w goods exported and consumed mainly in the north
•nidl is a result of econ. globalisation
•a useful idea bcs it draw attention to increasing use of cheap lab. in poor countries to produce goods for rich countries

Question 12

what occurred in the 1970s and onwards

Answer 12

•manufacturing production moved away from developed countries and increasingly to developing countries
•spread of tnc’s and improvement in global travel and communication changed the earlier pattern

Question 13

why can it be misleading

Answer 13

•term can be seen as misleading - many poor countries still rely heavily on exporting food and raw materials while rich countries still have some manufacturing industries so trad divisions of lab. survives alongside new

Question 14

ev for econ. globalisation - spread of cap. around the world

Answer 14

•even nominally comm. countries (china, vietnam) have moved away from state control of econ. and allowed cap. businesses
•adoption by many countries of neolib. policies, sometimes under pressure to follow structural adjustment programmes, has extended the market even further into areas that once were under the control of state

Question 15

ev for econ. globalisation - growth and strengths of transnational corporations

Answer 15

•supply of resources, production and consumption have all been globalised
•giant companies (subsidiaries/franchises) make the same products in many countries using supplies imported from a wide range of diff countries which they then sell all across the globe

Question 16

ev for econ. globalisation - the way in which tnc’s tend to operate

Answer 16

•george ritzers mcdonaldisation (see wpw notes)

Question 17

ev for econ globalisation - finance and money markets also being globalised

Answer 17

•financial events in the other side of the world can quickly affect us
•banks and stockbrokers are often transnational operations and money can be moved v quickly around the world
•became evident w the ‘credit crunch’ and recession in 2008 which spread v quickly from one econ to another across the globe - shows how closely econs from diff countries are interconnected

Question 18

political gl

Answer 18

•some assume that, as capitalism spreads, so will political system of liberal democracy
•around world, no. of lib democracies has grown considerably since early 1990s and there are far fewer dictatorships
•not all pol. systems are ‘free and fair’ w opposition allowed to organise freely but elections are almost always observed by international monitors and procedure to try and reduce bribery, vote rigging etc
•’free and fair’ elections now often a condition if receiving aid

Question 19

political gl - nation states

Answer 19

•another aspect of it - natjon states become less important compared to TNC’s and global/supernational political entities e.g. eu and at same time local pol. structures
•national govs increasingly face problems that are too big for them to deal w on their own e.g. climate change, pollution, terrorism, drugs trade etc
•big pol. questions now require global decision making - made govs willing to concede some power to international organisations like un and eu, and willing to negotiate agreements w other countries
•neolibs believe nation state death imminent so world can become true single market - argue that adjustment is essential to remain a part of global econ. (privatisation, deregulation, anti corruption drives)

Question 20

what else have nation states given up

Answer 20

•given up some pol. power to smaller and more local pol. structures - e.g. devolved assemblies in Scotland, wales and ni
•new social movements often operate across several countries or even globally - national boundaries no longer restrict political activity
•policy areas once under control of states are now much more difficult - employment (tnc’s outsource employment if they consider a country too expensive/simply relocate factories), taxation (tax havens mean wealthy in. can locate their wealth where countries can’t tax)

Question 21

ev of cultural globalisation (v likely to be a q)

Answer 21

•v closely linked to econ. globalisation and includes existence of worldwide info and communication systems, global patterns of consumerism, cosmopolitan lifestyles, world sport, world tourism
•most attention spread on highly visible aspects of american consumer culture
•not new but has intensified in recent years
•seen as increasing diversity

Question 22

what are other aspects of cultural gl

Answer 22

•other aspects include growth of christianity, islam and other religions, the dominance globally of the english language and spread of western values regarding families, rel. and lifestyles
•ideas such as gender equality and human rights have spread globally
•hyperglobalists would suggest that cul. gl in its present form is beneficial, diffusing styles around the world
•pessimistic gl. suggest that power has been concentrated in the hands of a few powerful corporations- simply a form of cultural imperialism
•transformationalists believe pess. explan is too extreme - flow of culture not juts one way

Question 23

theoretical perspective

Answer 23

•mcgrew (2000) - possible to distinguish three theoretical accounts of gl
•neoliberals - are globalists in a gl debate that argue that gl is a positive and irreversible force from which all will eventually benefit
•radicals - those in gl debates who argue that gl is a powerful neg force - dt and neo-marxist
•transformationalists - those in gl debate who see gl as a force whose outcomes are uncertain, but which can be controlled and used to promote develop.

Question 24

the neoliberals

Answer 24

•also referred to as positive globalists
•see gl as the worldwide extension of capitalism/free market
•see this as good bcs a global free market will lead to econ. growth, eradication of pov. and spread of democracy around the world
•new world order is being created which will ensure peace and prosperity
•will say that countries that are embracing the global free market are the ones where develop. is happening now (india, china) while continuing problems in africa are bcs that continent remains largely outside global free market
•gl. spreads the benefits of cap. around the world, allowing ppl to use entrepreneurial skills by liberalising markets will - argue it will produce wealth that will then ‘trickle down’ to whole pop.
•liberal democracy tends to be seen as inevitable accompaniment to the spread of the free market
•believe that cultural gl involves the spread of western values, seen as essential in a globalised world

Question 25

the radicals

Answer 25

•agree w neoliberals in seeing gl as essentially the global spread of cap. but they see it as neg.
•often ass. w marxism and world systems theory
•econ. gl seen as spreading globally an econ. system which impoverishes many and, bcs it is based in high consumption, non sustainable - believe gl widens the gap between rich and poor - even if some countries benefit, rick countries will benefit more

Question 26

what do radicals believe gl creates

Answer 26

•a global system based on structural violence - term used by galtung (1969) to describe the way in which, even in peaceful societies, a group can be exploited by the systematic denial of their rights - condemns parts of the south to poverty and stagnation

Question 27

how do radicals view cultural gl

Answer 27

•as cultural imperialism - the imposition of western cultural values on non western cultures, and the consequent undermining of local cultures and cultural independence
•gl is seen as leading though a process of global homogenisation (removal of cultural diff. so all cultures are increasingly similar) to a single global culture based on amer/western culture

Question 28

what do the radicals believe is currently happening

Answer 28

•a deepening intensification of long-standing trends
•cap. began its global expansion centuries ago but is now completely dominant
•new - tnc’s supported by igo’s have replaced developed nations as the driving forces of these changes - new world order that’s emerging seems like a disorder - north cannot be safe and secure as long as its wealth is based on intensifying pov. in south

Question 29

the transformationalists

Answer 29

•e.g. cohen and kennedy (2012) - see gl as a v important develop. but disagree w both neoliberals and radicals on several grounds
>gl may not be unstoppable - may even slow down or go in reverse
>may be possible for ppl and countess to reject some neg. aspects of gl while embracing the more pos. aspects
>far from creating homogenous global culture, meeting of diff cultures creates new hybrids (hybridisation - creation of a new third hybrid culture when aspects of 2 diff cultures combine) - seen as creating greater diversity and more vibrant, exciting cultures
>reverse cultural flows mean that developing world influences culture from west
>world is still unequal but gl is transforming old hierarchies of north/south and first/third world

Question 30

how far has econ. globalisation gone

Answer 30

•far from complete - still many national companies and even large corporations have clear national bases and so a re more properly mncs than tncs
•even if nat. govs have more control over their econs than in past, regional groups of gov (e.g. eu) can provide some protection for workers and insist on basic rights, placing limits on power of tnc’s

Question 31

what do some argue ant econ. gl

Answer 31

•hirst and thompson (1999) argue that econ. gl is a myth
•outlining ideal types of international econ. and global econ, they argue the one is still much closer to world econ.
•although there is greater econ. activity, h+t see no ev if a fully develop. global econ. system
•global econ. downturn since 2008 may have slowed down econ. gl further

Question 32

how far has political gl gone

Answer 32

•govs still have considerable scope to influence develops. and it is national govs that are entering into agreements that create international organisations
•nat. govs still wage wars and raise taxes, more countries have adopted trapping of lib. democracy however west still tolerate undemocratic regimes as long as they are on their side - has also been progress w decline in no. of dictatorships/authoritarian regimes and a rise in the no. of democracies

Question 33

what has occurred when ppl have attempted to resist gl

Answer 33

•led to asserting strong national, ethnic and religious identities
•e.g. can be argued that islamic fundamentalism is a reaction to westernisation but knees that themselves make use of some aspects of gl - using internet for propaganda and recruitment

Question 34

what is the transformationalist case for pol. gl

Answer 34

•put forward by mcgrew (2004) - argues that although nation states are not in terminal decline, plenty of ev of transformation of politics w develop. of global decision making structures and also diffusion of power
•way in which pls achieve politics has changed - more global and internat. movements and organisations at same time as trad. pol. activities
•problems that ppl face increasingly require both global and local change, pol. changing reflect this

Question 35

reduced role of nation states and pol. gl

Answer 35

•if econ gl does mean a much reduced role of nation states (claimed by neolibs) then idea that this also means greater democracy is questionable
•while citizens at be able to join parties and vote as no. of lib democracies grow, politicians they vote for are no longer able to take rly important decisions - taken by tnc’s whose leaders are not elected and are accountable to only shareholders - greater democracy may not be as apparent

Question 36

how far has cultural gl gone

Answer 36

•hard to avoid western culture anywhere in world now - giant media and communication corporations are all based in north
•cultural flow is not always one way from north to south - bollywood and asian film industries challenge supremacy of hollywood in global media, migration of immigrants mean that southern culture have sig. presences within developed countries w cultural products of developing world often highly valued

Question 37

why might western culture not have as much of an impact as initially believed

Answer 37

•while some welcome western/american culture, some actively resist it
•west culture can be seen as degrading/destroying local cultures and creating a generation gap as young ppl embrace it while the older gen reject it
•some counties vigorously oppose western cultural values, turing to rel. fundamentalism (iran) or isolationism (nk)

Question 38

how can countries opposing western cultures be seen as proof of gl

Answer 38

•gl unsettles ppls sm that they retreat to old familiar values simply as a way of making sense of a world that seems out of control

Question 39

what do the meeting of cultures also lead to

Answer 39

•new hybrids in which non-western cultures can survive in a new form
•encounters between cultures can create ‘third cultures’ in which aspects of diff cultures are combined
•trad. may also be kept alive/resurrected for tourists whom highly value what they take to be an authentic cultural exp. - may only be presented w simplified version of an aspect of a culture or one removed from original context, can still promote sense of value if one’s own culture and culture of others

Question 40

what does cul. gl seem to involve

Answer 40

•a unprecedented level of difference and variety w the variety extended by hybridisation and reverse culture flows - seen in range of foods and type of music available
•at same time, unprecedented level of cultural homogenisation

Question 41

who benefits and loses from gl - neolib argument

Answer 41

•neolib case - everyone can benefit in the long run, gl will bring econ. growth to whole world, initially likely to create inequalities but eventually living standards will be higher
>argue that poor are missing out bcs they are not get sufficiently integrated into global econ.

Question 42

who benefits and loses from gl - radical argument

Answer 42

•radical persp. - neg. effects seem to outweigh any advantage - failed to deliver peave and prosperity and econ. stability, progress toward develop. been slow, growth of consumerism that is part of gl leading to growing enviro problems
>those that benefit - sklair (1995) calls ‘transnational capitalist class - global ruling class no longer tied to national boundaries, has been ques. whether these ppl have enough in common to act together as a class
>klein argues that gl is a project by tnc’s to further their own interests and profits
>cohen and kennedy (2012) - gl has created both ‘gl winners’ (increase power and privilege) and ‘gl losers’ (missed out)

Question 43

gl seemed to have created two problems:

Answer 43

•growing gap between rich and poor, secure and excluded
•growing enviro problems bcs of spread of consumerism

Question 44

anti-globalisation movement

Answer 44

•loose network of groups and orgs. globally opposing neolib. econ. gl since at least 1995
•attracted global media att. w demonstrations at wto meeting 1999
•bcs of disparite nature, moment lacks coherent programme but is broadly in favour of decisions being taken locally rather than imposed by ‘experts’
•does take advantage of possibilities of cooperating globally using internet and other global telecommunications

Question 45

what does kunstler argue abt gl today

Answer 45

•nothing is inevitable abt gl, it is coming to an end
•sees gl as product of 2 factors - relative peace of post cold war period and simultaneous availability of cheap energy resources, part. oil - both factors now fading (us troops involved in wars and west under continuous threat of islamic terrorism - oil reserves limited and much of oil remaining in control by states that are hostile to west) - west’s oil led lifestyle has v limited future so views gl as imminent to end

Question 46

what does saul argue abt gl today

Answer 46

•gl reached it’s high point in mid 1990s w creation of wto but then being challenged by a reclaiming of power by some nation states from supposedly all-powerful econ. forces e.g malaysia broke all neolib rules to escape asian crisis 1997, counties is south amer. and elsewhere have elected govs who oppose gl
•sees pos signs of more benign aspects of gl emerging as neoliberalism retreats, in non-econ. internat. treaties and setting up of internat. criminal court

Question 47

effects of global recession of 2009

Answer 47

•effects everywhere, even slowed growth in china
•wealthier nations became preoccupied with own econs, global trade fell
•some aspects of gl seem likely to continue - global communications, internet and social media have made possible global actions and seem unlikely to be reversed
•transformationalists see these as opening up possibilities for ensuring that the ‘global losers’ can also benefit

Question 48

seabrook (2005) - principle responses to gl

Answer 48

•fatalistic - ppl believe they’re powerless to resist it, most leaders in western world suggest it’s inevitable and irreversible- disguises the fact that forces of gl econ. advantage they countries
•welcoming - sen (2002), gl a hope for all humanity and that techno-scientific rev can help liberate humanity
>pinker (2004) - gl reduces war and conflict
>cohen and kennedy - local captures the global and this hybridisation turn into acceptable forms of local culture
•resistance - reassertion of local identities as it is seen as violating old identities - rise of nationalism is simply reactions to ppl under overwhelming pressure