individual differences - optimism

Question 1

learned optimism
- explanatory style
martin e seligman et al
dog experiment

Answer 1

learned helplessness – learned optimism

-three groups of dogs were exposed to shocks they could not escape
-subsequently , they were put into an apparatus where escaping was possible

result
-some dogs needed a lot of help escaping the shocks as they learned to be helpless and expected there was no way to escape

-dogs who were not exposed to the inescapable treatment (fourth group) did not show helplessness

-further observations (dogs and humans) some individuals never learned to be helpless (resiliance)

Question 2

learned optimism
explanatory style
-what does selingman argue

Answer 2

explanatory style : a way of interpreting setbacks in life
-selingman argues that if we change our beliefs about adversities, we can change the consequences –> learned optimism

Question 3

learned optimism
-critical perspective
main assumption

Answer 3

the main assumption is that it is an experience of an adverse situation that determines ones level of optimism (see learned helplessness)
-close to a psychoanalytical view of human psychology
-hard to disprove

Question 4

can we learn optimism ? (malouff and schutte)
can psychological interventions increase optimism ? a meta analysis

Answer 4

-yes but the effect is small when measured within one day of the end of intervention and half the size when measured later
-the effect is larger when individuals were motivated (they paid for the intervention)

Question 5

dispositional optimism
Charles carver and Micheal Scheier

Answer 5

-they said individuals have a general predisposition to be optimistic (or pessimistic) in their mood or temperament

Question 6

The view on dispositional optimism

Answer 6

-optimism as a personality trait or genetic disposition

-disposition that leads individuals to expect (un) favourable outcomes
-influences how individuals deal with stressful situations

Question 7

what is situational optimism

Answer 7

Situational optimism refers to the general expectations of a good outcome in a specific context.
-individuals generate positive /negative expectations about specific situations

• expansion of dispositional optimism

Question 8

sweeny et al 2006
is optimism always best?

Answer 8

• is about shift in optimiam
  -optimism at one point in time versus another (predictions)

Question 9

is optimism always best?

Answer 9

-not always , eg the need for preparedness-moving away from optimism in the moments of truth (realism or pessimism)
-readiness to respond to uncertain outcomes : being prepared for setbacks but also ready to take advantage of opportunities

Question 10

why and when do people shift from optimism

Answer 10

-as a response to information
-when there is the possibility of undesired outcome
-when negative outcomes are easily imagined
-when a person has low self esteem

Question 11

hope definition
Charles snyder

Question 12

how do we achieve goals ?
Goal achievement through _____ and ______
explain

Answer 12

agency and pathways
agency : determination, motivation
pathways : plans, strategies we take on the way to achieve a specific goal

Question 13

low versus high hope individuals

Answer 13

-individuals differ in the number and specificity of their goals (the ability to define goals), flexibility in generating pathways, and the ability to motivate themselves

Question 14

the hope scale

Answer 14

-measures hope
-generally target pathways and agency
-‘i energetically pursue my goals’
-‘there are lots of ways around my problem;

Question 15

optimism and positive thinking

Answer 15

-for some psychologists , ‘positive thinking’ equals to denial/repression of negative thoughts

-‘positive thinking’ is not a term frequently used in psychological research

-like putting on rose glasses

Question 16

optimism and well being
stressful situations

Answer 16

-dealing with stress is a sort of sequence of decisions,
-when we are dealing with a stressful situation, there’s 2 important concepts associated with
-primary appraisals
-coping strategies

Question 17

primary appraisals

Answer 17

-when we face a situation we need to evaluate it
-initial assessment of threats or losses and challenges
-depends on complexity,values,commitments anf goals, novelty of the situation, social support, intensity, perceived control but also an individuals level of optimism

how one interprets the situation (if the see something as a challenge or threat) will differ between people who are higher on optimism and lower on optimism

-individual differences lie in the level of optimism and initial interpretation of a situation

Question 18

coping strategies
-problem focused
-emotion focused

Answer 18

problem focused - directed at the stress (define and understand the problem, cost and benefit analysis, generate solution options and act) so change the environment or yourself

emotion focused : directed at decreasing emotional distress (avoid,distance yourself, blame others,gaslighting,venting) – relief stress

Question 19

how can optimism impact well being
positivley
negativley

Answer 19

if a person is optimistic - they will be more
-consistence
-persistence
-provlem focused coping
-positive aspects of stressful situations

if a person is low on optimism
-they will have doubt
-hesitancy
-denial/avoidance/coping
-negative feelings and aspects of stress
threat/loss appraisals

Question 20

self esteem and optimism relationship
-what is the relationship underlined by

Answer 20

-a person who is higher in self esteem is likely to be more optimistic
-optimism and high self esteem are both associated with better health and well being
-perhaps resilience is the common factor that helps individuals effectively deal with stressful situations

Question 21

other relationships with high optimism in life

Answer 21

-lower academic burnout
-higher academic success
-better quality of life
-better psychological well being
-buffering against the harmful effects of body dissatisfaction
-lower stress following surgery
-

Question 22

optimism vs pessimism maruta et al 2000
-do people who are high optimists live longer than pessimists

Answer 22

-839 patients completed the mmpi test between 1962 and 1965
–identfied 124 optimistic, 518 mixed and 197 pessimistic
-follow up after 30 years with 723 patients
-found that a more pessimistic original score was related to a 19% increase in the risk of mortality

conclusion : pessimism associated with higher mortality

Question 23

can we increase well being via optimism in every day life
lyubomirsky and layous 2013

Answer 23

-whether intentional actions that are perfromed regularly that are aimed at increasing optimism can have longer lasting effects of better well being

-eg gratitude,counting blessings, performing kind acts, etc

-results show that some show positive impact, some show no impact

Question 24

how would engaging in positive activity actually increase engagement
-what factors need to be considered and affect positive intervention
(activity features )
(person features)

Answer 24

-would increase positive emotions and thoughts/behaviours and so increase well being

activity features
-eg dosage,variety,social support,

person features
-eg motivation and effort
personality
demographics

Question 25

moderators of effectiveness for optimism helping well being
(activity features)
dosage

Answer 25

shows that performing one kind act a day per week was more effecrive than 5 kind acts in one day for increasing hapiness
-more spaced activities seem to be the optimal dosage

Question 26

moderators of effectiveness for optimism helping well being
(person features)
motivation, belief, effort

Answer 26

-high extraversion and openess to experience associated with greater gains in positive activities training
-low positive affect up to moderate depressive symptoms-greater gains ,but not for all activities