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Immunology Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the basic functions of the immune system

A
  1. protects the body from pathogens
  2. helps repair damage from physical injury
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2
Q

list the levels of defense against pathogens

A
  1. physical/anatomic barriers (e.g. skin, oral mucosa, respiratory epithelium, and intestine)
  2. complement/antimicrobial proteins (C3, defensins)
  3. innate immunity (macrophages, granulocytes, NK cells)
  4. adaptive immunity (B cells/antibodies, T cells)
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3
Q

differentiate commensal and pathogenic organisms

A

commensal: relationship between host and microbe that is mutually beneficial (e.g. microbiome required for development, nutrition, immune regulation & protects against pathogens)

pathogenic: an organism that causes sufficient damage to result in disease (e.g. virus, bacteria, prions, fungi, protozoa, other parasites)

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4
Q

identify the barrier tissues

A
  1. skin
  2. gut
  3. lungs
  4. eye/nose/oral cavity
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5
Q

identify the protective characteristics of the skin

A

Mechanical: tight junctions & longitudinal flow of air/fluid
Chemical: fatty acids, B defensins, lamellar bodies, cathelicidin
Microbiological: microbiota

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6
Q

identify the protective characteristics of the gut

A

Mechanical: tight junctions & longitudinal flow of air/fluid
Chemical: low pH & enzymes & alpha defensins
Microbiological: microbiota

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7
Q

identify the protective characteristics of the lungs

A

mechanical: tight junctions & movement of mucus by cilia
chemical: surfactant & alpha defensins
microbiological: microbiota

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8
Q

identify the protective characteristics of the eyes/nose/oral cavity

A

mechanical: tight junctions, tears, nasal cilia
chemical: enzymes in tears & saliva & histatins/beta defensins
microbiological: microbiota

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9
Q

compare innate vs adaptive immunity in regard to specificity, action time, persistence, memory, antigens, receptors, examples

A

innate: non specific, immediate, short-lived, no memory, conserved MAMPs, germ-line encoded, neutrophils/macrophages/antigen presenting cells

adaptive: specific, delayed, long-lived, memory, diverse proteins/peptides/carbs, gene segments rearrange to create diversity, T cells/B cells

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10
Q

describe the phases of the immune response

A
  1. innate response (inflammation, complement, phagocytosis, destruction of pathogens) - minutes
  2. adaptive response (B cells, T cells, lymphocytes) - hours/days/weeks
  3. immunological memory (maintenance of memory B cells and T cells and high serum or mucosal antibody levels; protect against reinfection) - days/weeks/lifelong
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11
Q

understand how antibodies and T cells responses lead to a clearance of microorganisms and toxins

A

B cells/Antibodies: neutralization, opsonization/phagocytosis, antibody-dependent cellular toxicity, and complement activation which leads to lysis, phagocytosis with fragment C3b, and inflammation

T cells: cytotoxicity, intracellular immunity (type 1), mucosal and barrier immunity (type 2), and extracellular immunity (type 3)

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12
Q

compare the effector mechanisms of the innate and adaptive immune systems

A

innate
1. cellular (mast cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, macrophages, innate lymphoid cells)
2. soluble (complement, kinins, vasoactive amines, eicosanoids, defensins, ROS, lysosomal enzymes, cytokines, chemokines, acute phase proteins)

adaptive
1. antibody-mediated immunity: antibodies in the blood (e.g. colostrum)
2. cell-mediated immunity: e.g. rejection of foreign organ graft

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13
Q

what is neutralization, opsonization, and phagocytosis?

A

neutralization: neutralizing antibody coats the pathogen removing its effect

opsonization: coating the pathogen to make it more susceptible to phagocytosis

phagocytosis: when a phagocyte engulfs the pathogen and eliminates it

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14
Q

describe the function of primary and secondary lymphoid organs and where they are located

A

primary/central lymphoid organs: production of vertebrate immune cells, bone marrow/thymus

secondary/peripheral lymphoid organs: maintain naive lymphocytes, initiate an adaptive immune response, lymph nodes/spleen/mucosal lymphoid tissue

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15
Q

what is cell signaling?
understand the basic concepts of cell signaling

A

cell signaling leads to the production of signals that serve as inputs for other cells…

  1. exogenous stimulus (e.g. pathogen) binds to a receptor on the source cell
  2. source cell sends the signal to target cells
  3. target cell generates a response
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16
Q

list the cellular and subcellular location and ligands for key PRR and their microbial/danger ligands

A

TLR 4: membrane-bound, a ligand is LPS, and danger ligand is DAMPS

TLR3,7,8,9: w/in vesicles, dsRNA/ssRNA/CpG DNA which are viruses/bacteria, danger ligand is foreign nucleic acids

complement: soluble

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17
Q

describe the steps involved in innate recognition of pathogens

A
  1. pathogen admit the PAMPs
  2. PRR recognizes/senses the PAMPs
  3. signal transmitted into the nucleus where gene transcription will occur
  4. gene transcription triggers an antimicrobial immune response (inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, type I interferons)
    *endosomal receptors good at triggering type I interferons
    *membrane-bound receptors (TLR4) good at triggering proinflammatory cytokines
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18
Q

where is the origin of vertebrate immune cells? what type of cell do all the cells originate from?

A

origin: bone marrow
all cells originate from pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs)

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19
Q

define phagocyte, antigen-presenting cell, Fc receptor

A

phagocyte: cell type capable of ingesting small particles (e.g. neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells)

antigen-presenting cell: cells that process and display antigen in the context of MHC to initiate an adaptive immune response (e.g. macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells)

Fc receptor: receptors on the surface of cells that bind the constant region of the antibody molecules

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20
Q

understand the monocyte/macrophage immune surveillance network; describe macrophage activation

A

-monocytes patrol the blood and sense for infection or damage
-monocytes leave the blood and become macrophages which are located in the tissues
-macrophage activation is rapid, reversible, and remarkably plastic

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21
Q

describe the role of mast cells and the initiation of inflammation
- where are they located
- what do they release
- how are they secreted & regulated
- what do they synthesize
- what type of reaction and receptor
- what do they regulate

A

-long-lived residents of vascularized tissues beneath the epithelial surface exposed to the external environment (skin, respiratory, GI tract) around vessels and close to peripheral nerves
-degranulate to release histamine & serotonin (vasoactive amines)
- not killed by degranulation
- secretion is orderly/coordinated
- regulated by endothelium cells
-synthesize prostaglandins and leukotrienes to attract macrophages and PMNC (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils)
- receptors include Fc (bind IgE) & PRR
- type I hypersensitivity reactions (IgE receptors for allergies)
- regulate eosinophils

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22
Q

describe the lifecycle of a macrophage from birth in the bone marrow to specialized tissue macrophage

A
  1. hemapoitetic stem cell (HSC)
  2. common myeloid progenitor cells (HPC)
  3. granulocyte/macrophage progenitor
  4. monocyte
  5. macrophage type dependent on tissue (e.g. osteoclast, kupffer, histiocyte, white pulp/red pulp)
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23
Q

key characteristics of hematopoietic stem cells and hematopoietic progenitor cells

A

HSC: self renew, proliferate, and differentiate into HPC

HPC (common lymphoid progenitor, common myeloid progenitor, granulocyte/macrophage progenitor, and megakaryocyte/erythrocyte progenitor): do not self renew, proliferate, and differentiate into varied colony forming units that include B cells/T cells/ dendritic cells/ NK cells/ granulocytes/monocytes/platelets/RBC

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24
Q

where do T cells mature?

A

Thymus

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25
where do B cells mature
bone marrow first then the spleen
26
what MHC is specific to WBCs
MHC II
27
what are the differences between macrophages and resident macrophages?
resident macrophages: from erythroid myeloid progenitor (EMP), clear cellular debris, iron processing, immune surveillance, response to infection, resolution of inflammation; reside in the tissues; recruit neutrophils macrophage: from common myeloid progenitor (CMP), come from monocytes in the blood --> tissues, type dependent on tissue
28
resident macrophages in the liver are called _____
Kupffer cells
29
resident macrophages in the spleen are called _____
red pulp macrophages white pulp macrophages marginal zone macrophages metallophilic macrophages
30
resident macrophages in the lung are called _____
alveolar macrophage
31
resident macrophages in the bone are called _____
osteoclast
32
resident macrophages in the CNS are called _____
microglial cells
33
resident macrophages in the connective tissue are called _____
histiocyte
34
how do mast cells regulate eosinophils
1. degrade eosinophilic major protein 2. produce IL5 3. produce eosinophil chemotactic factor
35
list the three types of polymorphonuclear cells (PMNC)
1. neutrophils 2. eosinophils 3. basophils
36
are neutrophils APCs? what is the most prevalent leukocyte and in early phase of inflammation? describe how neutrophils phagocytose and destroy pathogens
they are phagocytic but not antigen-presenting cell; most prevalent blood leukocyte and most prevalent in an early phase of inflammation opsonization allows for neutrophils to phagocytose and destroy pathogens by allowing 1. chemotaxis 2. adherence 3. ingestion 4. destruction via ROS or NETS
37
correlate the etiology of inflammation that is stereotypical for each type of PMNC
neutrophils - inflammation eosinophils - parasite & immune-mediated basophils - chronic inflammation, chronic (delayed) type hypersensitivity reactions, type I hypersensitivity reactions
38
identify the two categories of innate lymphocytes and the functions of each
innate lymphocytes (ILC) protect barrier surfaces 1. cytotoxic - directly kill 2. noncytotoxic - do not directly kill
39
list the types and locations of dendritic cells
dendritic cell precursor (bone marrow) immature dendritic cells (tissues) mature dendritic cells (lymphoid organs)
40
describe dendritic cell activation, migration, and maturation
activation: local infection of tissues allows for complement activation, antimicrobial proteins/peptides, and phagocytes migration: dendritic cells migrate to lymph nodes to allow phagocyte action/NK cell activation/cytokines & chemokine production to intiate adaptive immunity maturation: the bacterial products, inflammatory mediators, cytokines and DAMPS allow dendritic cells to go from immature (tissues) --> mature (lymphoid organs)
41
what are neutrophil extracellular traps (NETS)
highly activated neutrophils that result in a special cell death "NETosis" where neutrophils release de-condensed DNA/antimicrobial proteins (kamikaze mechanism where cell explodes and immobilizes/kills bacteria) occurs in common sites of inflammation all neutrophils are capable, but require certain amount of signal
42
what are the targets of NK cells
1. cells lacking MHC 1 2. antibody-coated cells 3. stressed cells
43
what are heterophils?
similar to neutrophils but in rabbits, birds, and reptiles
44
how do innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) differ from adaptive lymphoid cells
ILCs lack antigen receptors Adaptive lymphoid cells will be antigen specific
45
compare recognition of virus infected cells vs tumor cells by NK cells. How do NK cells kill their target?
virus infected cells - have an MHC I but are stressed tumor cells - no MHC I NK cells will kill with perforin, granzymes, cytokines, cell lysis
46
list two possible causes of eosinophilic inflammation.
1. parasites 2. immune (e.g. allergic reactions)
47
describe the features of inflammatory mediators
1. pleiotropic (1+ functions) 2. redundant 3. synergistic 4. antagonistic (inhibit others) 5. cascade effects 6. stereotypic response (not antigen specific) 7. early stages of inflammation 8. distrubuted widely but act locally 9. rapidly inactive locally 10. diverse chemical structure 11. important mediators depend on species
48
list the key activities of inflammatory mediators
1. vascular effects (vasodilation/constriction, permeability, and endothelial effects on leukoyte migration) 2. effect on leukocytes (chemotaxis & modulation of function) 3. local & systemic effects (fever, pain, tissue damage)
49
understand the roles of complement in innate immunity
1. activation via pattern recognition trigger 2. protease cascade amplification/C3 convertase 3. effector mechanisms a. inflammation (C3a & C5a) b. opsonization for phagocytosis (C3b) c. membrane attack complex (MAC) (C5b)
50
the major effects of kinins in inflammation
slow acting vasodilators increase capillary permeability mediate pain produce rubor (redness), calor (heat) and dolor (pain) and swelling
51
the major effects of vasoactive amines in inflammation
dilate arterioles increase vascular permeability e.g. histamine and serotonin (from mast cells) *released early in inflammatory response
52
the major effects of eicosanoids in inflammation what do they come from what enzymes are used what are the 2 basic categories examples
vasodilation/vasconstriction increased vascular permeability chemotaxis/adhesion pain resolution/repair arachidonic acid cyclooxygenases COX1 & COX2 housekeeping functions & inflamation/neoplasia e.g. prostaglandins, thromboxanes, prostacyclins
53
list the sources of inflammatory mediators
1. cellular sources (mast cells, basophils, platelets, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, epithelium) 2. tissues: liver *major source
54
list the sources of inflammatory mediators
1. cellular sources (mast cells, basophils, platelets, neutrophils, macrophages, lymphocytes, epithelium) 2. tissues: liver *major source
55
what is the role of C3 in complement
C3 convertase is the enzyme that creates C3a and C3b
56
what is the role of C3b in complement
it acts as an enzyme to convert C5 into C5a and C5b allows opsonization for phagocytosis and amplification of cascade
57
what is the role of C3a & C5a in complement
release of histamine from mast cells to increase vascular permeability "anaphylatoxins" & chemoattractants for granulocytes & monocytes (neutrophils & macrophages)
58
what is the role of C5b-9 in complement
form the membrane attack complex (MAC)
59
list inflammatory mediators
1. kinins 2. vasoactive amines 3. eicosanoids 4. platelet activating factor 5. ROS 6. defensins 7. lyosomal enzymes 8. cytokines 9. chemokines
60
source & function of platelet activating factor (PAF)
source: inflammatory & endothelial cells function: induce platelet aggregation, activates marginated neutrophils, increase vascular permeability, & bronchoconstriction
61
source & function of reactive oxygen species
source: phagocytes function: eliminates pathogens that have been phagocytosed
62
source & function of defensins
source: animal and plant cells function: active against bacteria, fungi & virsuses; assists in killing phagocytized bacteria by lysing the microbe ***peptides that embed in microbe membranes to form pore resulting in pathogen lysis
63
source & function of lysosomal enzymes
source: mast cells, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and macrophages function: digestion of damaged tissues & pathogens; mediate inflammation
64
source & function of cytokines
source: lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, leukocytes; formed via gene transcription function: small proteins important for cell-cell communication
65
source & function of chemokines
source: function: small proinflammatory cytokines that have powerful chemotactic activity for neutrophils**; chemokine mix determines composition of leukocyte infiltration
66
list cytokine families and key examples relevant to innate immunity/inflammation
1. hematopoietin family: HSC differentiate into principle blood cells (RBC, platelets, macrophages, granulocytes, mast cells, T cells, B cells, NK cells) via JAK-STAT pathway 2. IL-1 family (interlukins) 3. interferon family 4. tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family
67
function of IL1
source: macrophages and many others function: promotoes inflammation, affects leukocytes, kills tumor cells, affects brain (fever, drowsiness, appetite loss), affects cell growth, affects blood flow, affects metabolism ***fever, T cells, macrophage activation
68
function of IL6
source: macrophages, T and B cells, dendritic cells, basophils, eosinophils, fibroblasts, keratinocytes, myocytes function: T cells, hepatocytes, brain B cells ***acute phase protein production
69
function of TNF
source: macrophages, monocytes, T cells, mast cells function: promotoes inflammation, enhances fibroblast growth/collagen synthesis/bone resorption, toxic effects (sepsis), activates cells
70
function of Type I Interferons (alpha & beta)
source: all cell types function: inhibits translation, increases degradation, and inhibits RNA synthesis; affects viral protein trafficking, and stimulates antiviral immune responses & signals neighbor cells to put up barriers, signals infected cells to die, and recruits WBC to stimulate adaptive immunity
71
function of Type II Interferons (gamma)
source: cytotoxic T lymphocytes and NK cells function: induces expression of Fc and C3b receptors, stimulates NK cell activity, activates macrophages, enhances antigen processing/presentation
72
list the events of acute inflammation
1. capillary widening/increased blood flow via macrophage release of cytokines/chemokines = heat/redness 2. increased capillary permeability/fluid release into tissues = swelling 3. attraction of leukocytes (chemotaxis)/extravasation of leukocytes to site of injury = tenderness 4. systemic response/fever and proliferation of leukocytes/release of inflammatory mediators = pain
73
how do leukocytes exit the blood stream and enter the tissues
1. rolling adhesion due to integrin (beta2) and intercellular adhesion molecule 2. tight binding 3. diapedesis (neutrophil changes shape and squeezes through due to chemokine concentration gradient) 4. migration
74
which leukocytes are present during an acute vs chronic immune response
acute: neutrophils chronic: macrophage (more abdundant) and lymphocytes
75
identify the source and diagnostic importance of acute phase proteins in different species
acute phase proteins: proteins during innate immunity that increase with infection and circulate the blood and participate in early phases of host defense against infection - in response to TNF, IL1 and IL6 - vary between species and some are lectins and some are iron binding proteins
76
what are the cause and effects of a cytokine storm
cause: PAMPs and DAMPs activate proinflammatory cytokines; massive systemic activation effect: hypoxia, oxidant production, apoptosis, and necrosis leads to multiple organ failure
77
how do damaged cells, inflammatory mediators and immune cells interact to cause inflammation
78
what is the most common acute phase protein in all species
SAA which promotes inflammation via chemotaxis of monocytes, neutrophils and T cells
79
cats mainly have what acute phase protein
AGP
80
cows mainly have what acute phase protein
Hp
81
pigs mainly have what acute phase protein
pig-MAP
82
define primary pathogen
organism that frequently causes significant damage when invading a healthy individual
83
define opportunistic pathogen
low virulence organism that causes damage in an immune impaired host
84
list the non-cytotoxic innate lymphoid cells and their function
ILC1 - defense against viruses, intracellular pathogens ILC2 - extracellular parasites and tissue repair ILC3 - immunity to extracellular bacteria
85
what is the function of NK cells
immunity against viruses and intracellular pathogens
86
how are cytokines regulated
IL1 regulated antagonistically TNF regulated via soluble receptor competing against cell membrane receptor
87
what is a lymphokine
cytokine made by lymphocytes
88
what is a monokine
cytokine made by monocyte/macrophage

Immunology (8 decks)

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