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Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

Where are lymphocytes produced?

A

In Primary lymphoid organs

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2
Q

What is a secondary lymphoid organ?

A

Where lymphocytes interact with antigens and other lymphocytes

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3
Q

Give three examples of secondary lymphoid organs

A

The spleen, lymph nodes and mucosal associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

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4
Q

What is the name of the process of making B and T lymphocytes?

A

Lymphopoiesis

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5
Q

Where does haematopoiesis occur?

A

In the bone marrow

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6
Q

What is the number of litres of lymph returned to the blood each day?

A

2-3L

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7
Q

Name x4 key features of the lymph node

A

The medullary sinus, lymphoid follicle, germline centres, afferent/ efferent lymphatic vessels and artery/vein blood vessels

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8
Q

What is a germline centre?

A

Sites within secondary lymphoid organs where B cells proliferate and differentiate

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9
Q

Where are B cells located in the lymph node?

A

In the outer lymph node within the lymphoid follicle

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10
Q

How do B and T lymphocytes know where to go once in the lymph node?

A

They are directed by chemokines

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11
Q

What are Peyer’s patches?

A

Specialised tissue within the small intestine which contains aggregates of B lymphocytes

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12
Q

Name x2 immune cells within the skin

A

Langerhan’s cells and intraepidermal lymphocytes

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13
Q

How do lymphocytes get into secondary lymphoid tissue?

A

From the blood into the lymphoid tissue through HEVs

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14
Q

What is an epitope?

A

The site of the antigen where the lymphocyte receptor will bind

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15
Q

Name two sites where lymphocytes are found

A

Blood and Lymph node

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16
Q

What is the main difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

A

Innate: Recognises molecular patterns, whereas adaptive: recognises precise structures

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17
Q

What does PAMP stand for and give x1 example

A

Pathogen associated molecular patterns. Bacterial Flagella

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18
Q

Give an example of DAMP

A

Damage associated molecular patterns. Uric acid, ATP, heat shock proteins

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19
Q

Give the name for the agranular immune cell

A

Lymphocytes

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20
Q

How does diversity of B and T cells arise?

A

Random genetic recombination

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21
Q

What is clonal expansion?

A

The copying of B or T lymphocytes with specific receptors on their cell surface. Clonal expansion is activated once antigen binds to the B/T lymphocyte

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22
Q

Why do B/T lymphocytes need to get into lymph tissue?

A

To meet their antigens

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23
Q

What is the name of cell given to cover neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes?

A

Leukocytes

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24
Q

What causes the division in classification between lymphocytes+monocytes Vs. neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils?

A

Lymphocytes and monocytes are agranular whereas eosinophils, neutrophils and basophils are granular

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25
Briefly explain the process of how the naive T cell moves from the blood to the lymphoid tissue.
Naive T cells roll along the endothelium at the HEV bound to low-affinity selectin. When they bind to chemokines this switches selectin low affinity binding to the high affinity binding of integrin. This binding stops the rolling and the T cell can migrate through the endothelium.
26
What two things does the binding of the chemokine to the rolling T cell at the endothelium do?
1. Stops the naive T cell rolling along the endothelium | 2. Changes low affinity selectin binding to high affinity integrin binding
27
What CD markers are found in all T cells?
CD3+
28
Which CD markers are found in B cells?
CD19+ and CD20+
29
What is an antibiotic?
An antibiotic is an antimicrobial agent produced by a microorganism which kills/ inhibits other microorganisms
30
What group of drugs does Penicillin fall under?
Beta-lactams
31
Name the three types of cells which can act as Antigen presenting cells
B lymphocytes, activated macrophages and dendritic cells
32
How does the T lymphocyte recognise an antigen?
The T cell receptor uses either CD4+ or CD8+ to recognise the antigen on the MHC molecule.
33
Which receptor on the T lymphocyte recognises MHC class I?
CD8+
34
Which receptor on the T lymphocyte recognises MHC class II?
CD4+
35
What makes each T lymphocyte unique from one another?
The T cell receptor
36
What is the complement system?
A group of proteins which cause opsonisation
37
Name x2 examples of opsonins
Complement and antibodies
38
What happens once macrophages or dendritic cells phagocytose cell?
Inflammatory mediators e.g. cytokines are released to recruit other cells
39
How would you recognise an activated mast cell?
It will be degranulated
40
What do Natural Killer cells secrete and how do they work?
Interferon gamma, phagocytose coated microbes upon activating receptor recognising 'missing self' molecules.
41
Name x5 cytokines
Interferon, interleukin, chemokines, cytotoxic cells and growth factors
42
Name the x3 ways which activate the complement system
1. Classical - antibody binds to antigen, lectin pathway - complement binds to carbohydrates specific to bacteria and alternative pathway.
43
What is the final pathway of the complement system?
MAC - Membrane attack complex = attacks membrane of bacteria.
44
What is incomplete penetrance?
Symptoms are not always present in an individual who has the disease
45
What is variable expressivity?
Disease severity varies
46
What is a phenocopy?
Same disease, different cause
47
What is epistasis?
Interaction between mutations affects phenotype. e.g. one gene masks another gene
48
Which immune responses are more rapid - innate or adpative?
Innate; less specific
49
Name the vascular change associated with septic shock
Vasodilatation
50
Name the vascular change associated with neurogenic shock
Loss of vascular tone
51
What is inflammation?
A protective response in viable, vasculerised tissue
52
What can cause an increase in vascular endothelial permeability?
Endothelial cells contract
53
What is resolution?
The regeneration of parenchymal cells with little structural damage.
54
Name four roles of macrophages
Phagocytosis, release cytokines to recruit other immune cells, wound repair and anti-inflammation
55
Name x3 acute phase proteins
Chemokines, C-reactive proteins, fibrinogen
56
Which part of the antibodies changes between antibodies?
Heavy chain
57
What is antibody affinity?
The strength of non-covalent bonds between an antigen and an antibody.
58
What is antibody avidity?
The strength of non-covalent bonds between all antigen epitopes and antibody binding sites.
59
Which is the most abundant Ig class?
IgG
60
Which Ig activates B cells?
IgD
61
Which Ig is a dimer shape?
IgA
62
Which two Igs have different subclasses?
IgG and IgA
63
Which part of the antibody reacts with the antigen?
The CDR within the hypervariable region.
64
What is an monoclonal antibody?
An antibody which has specificity for one antigen only.
65
What do T cells produce compared with B cells?
Cytokines. B cells = antibodies
66
What are the three fates of B cells once bound to an antigen?
- Produces antibodies - Undergoes maturation and differentiation - Turns into a plasma cell
67
How does a B cell produce antibodies?
Once the B cell binds to the antigen, it requires accessory signals from the T cell. It then presents MHC Class II receptors on its surface which bind to CD4+ activating the B cell. The B cell then differentiates into either a plasma cell or a memory cell.
68
How do T cells influence which antibodies are made?
T cells influence which cytokines B cells make which influences which Ig classes are made.
69
What is Somatic hypermutation?
Shuffling of the variable region on antibodies to produce more high quality binding B cells.
70
Does somatic hypermutation occur in T cells?
No.
71
Where does somatic hypermutation occur?
In the germinal centre
72
Describe the structure of the TCR.
The TCR is made up of an alpha and beta chain.
73
Name the x3 subsets of T cells
CD4+ Th1, CD4+ Th2 and CD8+ cytotoxic cells.
74
Name two differences between a naiive and effector T cell
Effector T cells proliferate faster than naiive T cells and secrete different cytokines.
75
What are the three phases of T cell memory response?
Expose, expand and contract.
76
What causes autoimmune disease?
Immune cells attacking self cells
77
What causes allergy?
Immune cells attacking benign antigens
78
Name x3 things that can occur when immune regulation fails.
Autoimmunity, allergy, hypercytokinaemia.
79
What is hypercytokinaemia?
A positive feedback loop between cytokines and immune cells.
80
What is the interleukin Treg cells secrete?
IL-10
81
What effect do Treg cells have?
Suppress Th1 and Th2 action
82
What is tolerance?
The unresponsiveness to self-antigens. Two types - Central and peripheral. Destroy/inhibit B/T cells.
83
What is AIRE? Autoimmune regulator?
A specialised transcription factor which allows thymic expression of peripheral tissue genes = promotes self-tolerance.
84
What are the mechanisms of Peripheral tolerance?
RAID - Regulation, anergy, ignorance and deletion.
85
Describe the two types of Treg cells
nTreg (natural) and iTreg (inducible). nTreg develop in the thymus and are activated with recognition of self antigens. iTreg develop from CD4+ cells which recognise antigens in peripheral tissue - no thymus role.
86
Name x1 enveloped virus
Ebola
87
Name x1 non-enveloped virus
Adenovirus
88
Name x2 differences between enveloped and non enveloped viruses
Enveloped = Has a lipid membrane and sensitive to heat | Non enveloped = no lipid membrane and heat resistant
89
Is Herpes a DNA or an RNA virus?
A DNA virus
90
Which enzyme converts viral RNA to viral DNA in the HIV mechanism?
Reverse transcriptase
91
What is the typical size for a virus?
10nm to 1um.
92
Define tropism
The specificity of a virus for a particular host cell.
93
Name x3 things which determine tropism
Susceptibility, accessibility and permissivity.
94
What is permissivity?
How the virus uses a host cell
95
What is the tropism for HIV use?
Receptor use
96
How can someone be resistant to HIV?
Mutations in the CD4+, CCR5 and CXCR4 means the HIV cannot bind to the receptors on the host cell.
97
Which virus is associated with nosocomial infection?
Norovirus
98
MHC molecules continuously present peptides even in the absence of infection. True or false.
True.
99
Where are B cells and macrophages mainly found?
The lymphoid tissue.
100
Endogenous antigens are recognised by which CD T cell class?
CD8+
101
Exogenous antigens are recognised by which CD T cell class?
CD4+
102
MHC genes are....
Polymorphic.
103
Which have intracellular peptides - MHC I or MHC II?
MHC I.
104
In humans, MHC is encoded by which genes?
HLA
105
How do cytotoxic T cells (CD8+) induce apoptosis?
Changes the polarisation within cytotoxic vesicles to allow for granule release. Perforin is released into infected cell. FasL binds to Fas receptor on infected cell.
106
What is type 2 delayed hypersensitivity.
Eradicating intracellular pathogens.
107
Name one difference between Influenza and RSV
Someone with influenza will not be reinfected by the same strain. RSV has recurrent reinfection. Influenza= immediate symptoms. RSV = delay.
108
Which cell is IFN-y associated with?
Th1 cell.
109
Name two roles of interferon
Activates NK cells, upregulates MHC.
110
Why is proliferation and differentiation of antibodies slow?
Each BCR on each B cell has specificity for one antigen only.
111
What is the main method of immune defence against viruses?
Interferons.
112
Define tolerance
The unresponsiveness to self-antigens
113
MHC molecules are generated by gene segment rearrangement. True or false.
False.

MCD (8 decks)

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