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HUBS191 > Immunology > Flashcards

Immunology Flashcards

1
Q

What is the immune system composed of

A

Spleen, cells, molecules (e.g antibodies)

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2
Q

What does the immune system defend against

A

Infectious and inflammatory diseases, and cancer

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3
Q

What are microbes

A

Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa

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4
Q

What is a pathogen

A

Any disease causing microbe

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5
Q

What do primary lymphoid organs do

A

Produce white blood cells (lymphocytes)

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6
Q

What do secondary lymphoid organs do

A

Sites where immune responses are intiated

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7
Q

What are the primary lymphoid organs

A

Bone marrow and thymus

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8
Q

What does the bone marrow do

A

Source of stem cells that develop into cells of the innate and adaptive immune responses

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9
Q

What does the thymus do

A

School for white blood cells where they learn what they can and can’t react to, only 10% succeed

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10
Q

What are the secondary lymphoid organs

A

Spleen and lymph nodes

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11
Q

What does the spleen do

A

Site of initiation for immune responses against blood borne pathogens

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12
Q

What do the lymph nodes do

A

Located along lymphatic vessels which drain fluid from tissues, filter lymph fluid and act as site of immune responses

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13
Q

What are the three layers of defence of the immune system

A

Chemical and physical barriers, innate arm, adaptive arm

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14
Q

What are the layers of the skin

A

Epidermis (dead cells, keratin, phagocytic immune cells), dermis (thick layer of connective tissue, collagen, blood vessels and phagocytic immune cells)

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15
Q

What are the chemical defences of the skin

A

Antimicrobial peptides (e.g skin defensins) form pores in microbial cell membranes, lysozymes break down bacterial cell walls, sebum with low pH, hypertonic to dry out microorganisms

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16
Q

What is a skin defensin

A

Antimicrobial peptide

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17
Q

What are the layers of mucous membranes (1-2 layers)

A

Mucus layer, epithelium (tightly packed live cells, mucus producing goblet cells), fibrous connective tissue

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18
Q

Where are mucosal membranes found

A

Lining parts of the body that lead to the outside and are exposed to air (e.g ocular, respiratory, oral, urogenital, rectal)

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19
Q

What are epithelial cells in the mucociliary escalor called

A

Columnar cells

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20
Q

What is the mucociliary escalator

A

Movement of mucus up to the pharynx

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21
Q

What are the chemical defences of mucosal membranes

A

Stomach: low pH, gall bladder: bile, intestine: digestive enzymes, mucus: trap things, defensins, lysozyme (tears, urine)

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22
Q

What makes up the innate defences

A

Surface barriers (skin, mucous membranes), phagocytes, natural killer cells, inflammation, antimicrobial proteins, fever

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23
Q

What makes up the adaptive defences

A

Humoral immunity (B cells), cellular immunity (T cells)

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24
Q

What are the features of the innate immune response

A

Already in place, rapid (hours), fixed, limited specificities, no specific memory

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25
Q

What are the features of the adaptive immune response

A

Improves during response, slow (days-weeks), variable, highly specific, long term specific memory

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26
Q

What is blood composed of

A

55% plasma, 45% formed elements

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27
Q

What is plasma composed of

A

Proteins (antibodies, immunoglobulin), other solutes, water

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28
Q

What is the formed elements part of blood composed of

A

Platelets, white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells

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29
Q

Where are blood cells sourced from

A

Bone marrow stem cells through hematopoiesis

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30
Q

What does the myeloid blood cell lineage give rise to

A

Innate immune cells
Red blood cells (erythtocytes), white blood cells (granulocytes, monocytes, dendritic cells, platelets)

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31
Q

What does the lymphoid blood cell lineage give rise to

A

Adaptive immune cells
White blood cells (B and T lymphocytes)

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32
Q

What are granulocytes in the blood

A

Type of innate immune white blood cells: neutrophils (75% of all leukocytes, highly phagocytic, numbers in blood increase during infection)

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33
Q

What are granulocytes in tissue

A

Mast cells which line mucosal surfaces and release granules that attract white blood cells to areas of tissue damage

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34
Q

What are the phagocytic cells in blood

A

Monocytes

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35
Q

What are the phagocytic cells that have left the blood (i.e develop in tissues from monocytes)

A

Macrophages

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36
Q

Types of macrophages

A

Resident (sessile), migratory

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37
Q

Functions of macrophages

A

Phagocytosis, release of chemical messengers, show information about pathogenic microbes to T cells (linking innate and adaptive immunity)

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38
Q

Dendritic cells

A

Phagocytic, found in low numbers in blood and tissues in contact with environment, most important cell type to help trigger adaptive immune responses

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39
Q

Most important cell type to help trigger adaptive immune responses

A

Dendritic cells

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40
Q

Which cell type links innate and adaptive immunity

A

Macrophages

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41
Q

How do innate cells recognise pathogens

A

Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)

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42
Q

Virus PAMPs

A

ssRNA, dsRNA

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43
Q

Bacteria PAMPs

A

Cell wall: lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/endotoxins, lipoteichoic acid
Flagella: flagellin protein
Nucleic acid: unmethylated CpG DNA

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44
Q

What are toll like receptors

A

Receptors that bind to virus/bacteria in phagolysosome and send signal to nucleus to upregulate gene transcription of production of chemical messengers to other neighbouring cells

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45
Q

What resets the internal thermostat (hypothalamus)

A

Pyrogens released by cells of the immune system

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46
Q

What do phagocytes produce after ingesting bacteria

A

Pyrogen interleukin-1 (IL-1)

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47
Q

Why is a fever induced

A

Inhibits bacterial replication, some facets of the immune system work better at higher temperatures

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48
Q

What are the defensive features of the skin?

A

Tightly packed and constantly renewing cells, phagocytes in lower epidermis and dermis

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49
Q

Where are defensins located

A

Skin and mucosal membranes

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50
Q

Where are goblet cells located

A

Mucosal membranes, respiratory and GI tracts

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51
Q

What are granulocytes

A

A type of phagocyte with granules of chemicals which destroy microorganisms and play a key role in acute inflammatory reactions.

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52
Q

What are erythrocytes

A

Red blood cells

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53
Q

What type of cell does the myeloid lineage give rise to

A

Granulocytes (innate)

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54
Q

What type of cell does the lymphoid lineage give rise to

A

Lymphocytes

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55
Q

What type of cell does the erythroid lineage give rise to

A

Erythrocytes

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56
Q

What are lymphocytes

A

T and B cells (adaptive)

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57
Q

Name the main types of phagocytic cells

A

Dendritic (skin, lymph nodes, spleen), macrophage (skin, lymph nodes, spleen), neutrophil (most abundant in blood)

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58
Q

Where are TLR located and what PAMP do they recognise

A

Cell surface: PAMPs on surface of microbes
Phagolysosome: PAMP viral and bacterial nucleic acid

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59
Q

How is pyrexia triggered

A

Upregulate production of IL-1, changes hypothalamus

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60
Q

How do mast cells cause inflammation

A

Degranulate and produce inflammatory molecules called histamines which increase vascular permeability for chemotaxis of granulocytes (neutrophils) to get through into tissue

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61
Q

What are leukocytes

A

White blood cells

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62
Q

What is the most abundant leukocyte in the blood

A

Neutrophils

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63
Q

Name two opsonins

A

C3b and antibodies

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64
Q

What molecule acts on the hypothalamus to cause a fever

A

IL-1

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65
Q

What causes degranulation of mast cells

A

Complement molecules C3a and C5a

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66
Q

What do B cells do

A

Make antibodies

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67
Q

What do T cells do

A

Activate B cells

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68
Q

What causes vasodilation and increased vascular permeability of blood capillaries to let neutrophils through?

A

Degranulation of mast cells (tissue resident cells) releasing histamines, neutrophils follow chemical trail (chemotaxis)

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69
Q

What is the first stage of phagocytosis

A

Adherence (can be receptor mediated)

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70
Q

What is the second stage of phagocytosis

A

Engulfment: endocytosis by formation of pseudopods

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71
Q

What is the third stage of phagocytosis

A

Fusion: phagolysosome forms

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72
Q

What is the fourth stage of phagocytosis

A

Destruction: degradation of invader by digestive enzymes, reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates, enzymes (proteases, lipases, nucleases)

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73
Q

What is the fifth stage of phagocytosis

A

Exocytosis: ejection of indigestible material

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74
Q

What are the names of the three pathways leading to activation of complement

A

Classical, alternative, lectin

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75
Q

How does the classical pathway bind complement

A

Antibody bound to antigen binds complement

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76
Q

How does the alternative pathway bind complement

A

Pathogen binds complement to surface/pathogen component

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77
Q

How does the lectin pathway bind complement

A

Carbohydrate components of microbes bind complement

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78
Q

Whatever triggers the complement cascade, all end up forming

A

C3 convertase enzyme complex

79
Q

How does opsonisation occur (outcome of complement activation)

A

C3b coats pathogen

80
Q

How does recruitment occur (outcome of complement activation)

A

C3a and C5a recruit mast cells to release histamines (chemotaxis of neutrophils)

81
Q

How does destruction occur (outcome of complement activation)

A

C5b, C6-C9 form membrane attack complex (MAC) which forms pores in the membrane of microbes to leach out contents and kill

82
Q

What protein forms the majority of MACs

A

C9

83
Q

How do immune cells communicate with each other

A

Soluble molecules, cell surface bound receptors, antigen

84
Q

How do cytokines and chemokines work

A

Bind to transmembrane receptors, activate 2nd messengers to nucleus to upregulate gene transcription, cell start making proteins for immune response

85
Q

What do helper T cells do

A

Support B cells in their immune response, binding alters function of one or both cells

86
Q

Where are antigens presented to

A

T cell surface bound receptors, label specific virus to be responded to

87
Q

What is specific about T cells

A

One type of receptor, antigen must be presented in specific way

88
Q

What is antigen

A

Anything that has the potential to be recognised by the immune system (e.g foreign, self)

89
Q

What is required to activate a T cell (activated by dendritic cells)

A

Chemical messenger bind to cell membrane (cytokine), cell surface bound receptors bind to T cell surface bound ligands, present antigen to cell surface bound receptors on T cells

90
Q

What is an MHC

A

Major histocompatibility complex, molecule on dendritic cell surface which presents antigen to T cell

91
Q

What is MHC-I

A

endogenous, intracellular antigen expressed on all nucleated cells

92
Q

What is MHC-II

A

exogenous, extracellular antigen expressed only on antigen presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells

93
Q

What is IL-1

A

A cytokine involved in inducing a fever by causing the hypothalamus to reset temperature

94
Q

What is a cytokine

A

Interleukins and interferons that control growth and activity of immune cells: soluble chemical messengers

95
Q

What is a chemokine

A

Molecules that stimulate cell migration, both produced and recognised by innate and adaptive immune cells as well as cells that influence the immune system (e.g epithelial)

96
Q

How do T cells activate B cells (leading to it making antibodies)

A

Make cytokines that bind to receptors on B cell membranes, have cell surface bound receptors that bind to a B cell surface bound ligand (i.e receptor or cytokine mediated interactions)

97
Q

How can complement activate B cells?

A

Complement fragments bound to antigen (classical pathway) help activate B cell to make antibodies

98
Q

What is meant by “trigger complement”

A

Take inactive protein and turn into active

99
Q

What are the main cells involved in adaptive immune response

A

Leukocytes: white blood cells (T and B)

100
Q

What are lymphocytes

A

Type of leukocyte (WBC): T and B cells

101
Q

What is the most potent antigen presenting cell

A

Dendritic cells

102
Q

How long are peptides presented on MHC

A

9-15 amino acids

103
Q

Where do dendritic cells come from

A

Migrate from organs to draining lymph node

104
Q

What is antigen

A

Anything with potential to be recognised by the immune system

105
Q

What are the two types of antigen

A

Foreign and self

106
Q

What is the purpose of antigen uptake

A

Clearance of pathogens (innate) and presentation to T cells (adaptive)

107
Q

What species have an adaptive immune response

A

Vertebrates and jawless fish (but based off different structures)

108
Q

What type of antigen does MHC-1 present

A

Endogenous

109
Q

What type of antigen does MHC-II present

A

Exogenous

110
Q

What cells express MHC-I

A

All nucleated cells

111
Q

What cells express MHC-II

A

APCs

112
Q

Where are proteins degraded into peptides and loaded onto MHC-I

A

Degraded in cytoplasm by proteasome and loaded in endoplasmic reticulum

113
Q

Where are proteins degraded into peptides and loaded onto MHC-II

A

Degraded and loaded in phagolysosome

114
Q

What are the two types of T cells

A

CD4 (Helper T cells) and CD8 (Cytotoxic T cells)

115
Q

What are the two functions of the thymus

A

Education of T cells, site of TCR rearrangement

116
Q

How are T cells described after just exiting the thymus

A

Mature and naive

117
Q

What does it mean if a T cell is naive

A

Hasn’t seen antigen

118
Q

Which parts of TCR genes rearrange

A

Variable (top)

119
Q

What is the purpose of CD4 and CD8 co receptors

A

Ensure TCRs dock into correct MHC

120
Q

Which T cells to MHC-I dock into

A

CD8

121
Q

Which T cells to MHC-II dock into

A

CD4

122
Q

What are effector T cells

A

Activated T cells (docked MHC peptide complex)

123
Q

What do helper T cells help with and how

A

Help CD8 T cells become cytotoxic and B cells make antibody by releasing cytokines

124
Q

What does a CD8 T cell require to be activated

A

Docking into MHC of APC and cytokines from CD4

125
Q

How do cytotoxic T cells kill virally infected cells

A

Release perforin (poke holes in membrane) which granzyme goes through and triggers apoptosis (programmed cell death)

126
Q

What are memory T cells

A

CD4 or CD8 T cells that reside in the body for long periods of time and become effector cells much faster than naive T cells (secondary response)

127
Q

High levels of which antibody isotype indicate an effective vaccine

A

IgG

128
Q

What is the purpose of apoptosis

A

Deprive virus of machinery to make progeny

129
Q

How are viruses killed by the immune system

A

CTLs release perforin and granzyme which result in apoptosis, depriving virus machinery to proliferate

130
Q

What characterises a secondary immune response (with regards to antibody)

A

Lots of class switched antibody

131
Q

What are the three roles of antibody

A

Neutralisation, opsonisation and complement activation (classical pathway)

132
Q

What is required for a B cell to be activated

A

Cytokines from T helper cell, binding to membrane bound ligand from T cell, binding of native antigen

133
Q

Where do B cells complete differentiation

A

Bone marrow

134
Q

What are naive mature B cells

A

B cells that have BCRs but have not seen antigen

135
Q

What are plasma cells

A

Activated B cells that secrete antibody

136
Q

What is humoral immunity

A

Antibody mediated immunity where B cells secrete antibody to affect bacteria

137
Q

What is cell-mediated immunity

A

The creation of cytotoxic T cells to kill virus infected cells

138
Q

What joins the two heavy chains of antibody

A

Disulphide bridge

139
Q

Where are the variable regions of antibody

A

End of light and heavy chains

140
Q

What do membrane bound antibodies have that secreted don’t

A

A transmembrane region

141
Q

Where are the constant regions of antibodies

A

The bottoms of the heavy and light chains

142
Q

What antibody class do naive mature B cells mostly have

A

IgM, IgD

143
Q

What is the name of the antibody binding site

A

Epitope

144
Q

What is a native antigen

A

An unprocessed antigen

145
Q

Antibodies are all in this form in blood, expect for IgM

A

Monomeric

146
Q

What is the most abundant Ig class in blood

A

IgG

147
Q

What are the functions of IgG

A

Opsonisation, neutralisation, passive immunity (crosses placenta)

148
Q

What is the only Ig class that crosses the placenta

A

IgG

149
Q

Where is IgG found

A

Blood

150
Q

What is the most abundant Ig class in the secondary response

A

IgG

151
Q

What is the structure of IgA

A

Monomer in blood, dimer on mucosal surfaces for stability (gut, lungs)

152
Q

What are the functions of IgA

A

Passive immunity (breast milk) and present in blood

153
Q

What are the two Ig types that provide passive immunity

A

IgG, IgA

154
Q

What Ig class type is found on mucosal membranes

A

IgA

155
Q

What stabilises multimeric forms of antibody

A

J chains

156
Q

What are the primary response isotypes

A

IgM, IgA

157
Q

Which isotype class sometimes exists in pentameric form

A

IgM

158
Q

What is the function of IgM

A

BCR, when secreted good at activating complement

159
Q

Where are IgM found

A

Blood and naive B cells

160
Q

What isotype activates mast cells

A

IgE

161
Q

What is the function of IgE

A

Immunity to multicellular parasites, allergic reactions

162
Q

What does IgE binding to mast cells result in

A

Degranulation of the mast cell and release of inflammatory molecules such as histamines

163
Q

What is the function of IgD

A

Acts as a BCR with IgM, specific function unknown

164
Q

What are memory cells

A

Express antibody as BCR but do not secrete antibody. Respond rapidly to antigen encounter and become plasma cells

165
Q

How long does the primary immune response take to produce sufficient antigen

A

7-14 days

166
Q

What is the main Ig class produced in the primary response

A

IgM

167
Q

How long does the secondary immune response take to produce sufficient antigen

A

2-3 days

168
Q

What is the main Ig class produced in the secondary response

A

IgG with some class switching to IgA and IgE

169
Q

What is severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)

A

An X linked disease resulting in dysfunctional T and B cells

170
Q

What does HIV target

A

CD4 T cells (binds to CD4 receptors)

171
Q

Can invertebrates have autoimmune diseases

A

No as autoimmunity comes from adaptive immunity

172
Q

What causes autoimmunity

A

Autoreactive T or B cells

173
Q

What is rheumatoid arthritis

A

Autoreactive T and B cells attacking self antigens present in joints

174
Q

What is diabetes type I

A

T-cell mediated attack of pancreatic islet beta cells

175
Q

What antigens trigger allergic reactions

A

Allergens

175
Q

How does the allergic response occur

A

Primed helper T cells activate B cells to secrete IgE, IgE binds to mast cell receptors (FcR) causing degranulation and release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators

176
Q

Where do FcR bind to antibody

A

Fc region (constant)

177
Q

What do FcR (mast cell receptors) facilitate

A

Phagocytosis and mast cell activation

178
Q

What part of the antibody changes in an isotype switch

A

Constant Fc region

179
Q

What is the shared property of physical barriers

A

Constant replacement of cells

180
Q

How is the effectiveness of a new vaccine measured

A

The amount of IgG made

181
Q

What is the usual progression of antibody class switching

A

IgM/D -> IgG -> IgA -> IgE

182
Q

What is clonal selection

A

Selective expansion of lymphocytes that interact with antigen

183
Q

Where are endogenous antigens broken down

A

In the cytosol, then proteins broken down by proteasome

184
Q

Where does antibody class switching occur

A

Lymph nodes and spleen

185
Q

Class switching does not change the ______ of the antibody, but does change the ______

A

Specificity, function

186
Q

What are the 4 types of vaccine

A

Live attenuated, killed, sub unit protein, sub unit mRNA

187
Q

What is a live attenuated vaccine and give an example

A

Less infectious version of pathogen, e.g polio-sabin, MMR

188
Q

What is a killed vaccine and give an example

A

Dead pathogen, e.g polio-salk, influenza, SARS-CoV-2

189
Q

What is a mRNA subunit vaccine and give an example

A

mRNA that encodes a crucial protein (produced by our own body then recognised), e.g SARS-CoV-2, pfizer

190
Q

What is a subunit protein vaccine and give an example

A

Crucial/important protein, e.g tetanus, SARS-CoV-2 (spike)

191
Q

What is an adjuvant

A

Immune stimulants added to vaccines that enhance the activation of APCs

192
Q

Which vaccines normally adjuvants

A

Sub unit vaccines

193
Q

How are memory B cells formed

A

When a B cell is activated it differentiates into some plasma cells and some memory cells

HUBS191 (7 decks)

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