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HUBS191 > Endocrine > Flashcards

Endocrine Flashcards

1
Q

Regulated variable definition

A

A variable for which there is a sensor and a system to ensure the variable is kept within a normal range, around a set point

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2
Q

Normal range definition

A

Restricted set of values for a regulated variable that permits optimal cell functioning, i.e dynamic about set point

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3
Q

Set point

A

The physiological value of any given variable around which its normal range fluctuates. Each person has a unique set point

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4
Q

Population reference range

A

The set of values for a regulated variable that are considered normal and/or healthy (wider than any individual’s normal range) 95% of individuals will have a set point within this reference range

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5
Q

Purpose of negative feedback and example

A

Keep a regulated variable within its normal range, around its set point
e.g core temperature

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6
Q

Feedback control loop: sensors

A

Monitor variable and detect changes

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7
Q

Feedback control loop: control centre

A

Compares variable’s changed value to its set point. Sends signals to effector if correction (or amplification) required

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8
Q

Feedback control loop: effectors

A

Act to oppose (or amplify) effect of stimulus, thereby correcting (or exacerbating) change and restoring variable to set point if negative

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9
Q

Purpose of positive feedback and exmaple

A

Amplification: drives a process to completion
e.g breast milk release

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10
Q

What is the endocrine system characterised by

A

Chemicals released into the blood, slower but longer lasting effects than nervous system

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11
Q

Hormone definition

A

Chemicals released by endocrine gland cells, travel through blood, bind to receptors on or in target cell, made from amino acids or cholesterol

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12
Q

Thyroid gland location

A

Wraps around anterior of trachea

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13
Q

Adrenal gland location

A

On top of kidneys

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14
Q

Lipid soluble hormones

A

Require carrier proteins to travel in blood, bind to intracellular receptors (e.g thyroid hormone)

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15
Q

Water soluble hormones

A

Don’t require carrier proteins, bind to receptors on cell membrane (e.g adrenaline)

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16
Q

Cellular response of lipid soluble hormones

A

Stimulate creation of new proteins (stimulates gene transcription), often enzymes to produce a response.

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17
Q

Cellular response of water soluble hormones

A

Bind to membrane receptors, activate a 2nd messenger system to produce an amplified response (small amount of hormone = big response)

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18
Q

When do hormone effects stop

A

When it unbinds from receptor, used or excess hormone gets broken down and/or recycled, or excreted

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19
Q

Lipid soluble hormone types

A

Amines (thyroid hormones), steroids

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20
Q

Water soluble hormone types

A

Amines (catecholamines), peptides and proteins

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21
Q

What are catecholamines

A

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)

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22
Q

What type of hormone is cortisol

A

Steroid

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23
Q

Are water soluble hormones pre made or made to demand

A

Pre made and stored until needed

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24
Q

Are thyroid hormones pre made or made to demand

A

Pre made and stored

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25
Q

Are steroids pre made or made to demand

A

Made as required

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26
Q

Do lipid or water soluble hormones have a faster cellular response

A

Water soluble as lipids stimulate synthesis of proteins which takes time

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27
Q

How does the water soluble hormone action mechanism occur

A

Binds to receptor on membrane, activating attached G protein which activates or inhibits 2nd messengers (e.g cAMP or Ca2+) which affect actions of other proteins

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28
Q

Why do water soluble hormones have a faster response

A

2nd messengers are already pre made

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29
Q

2nd messenger examples

A

cAMP, Ca2+

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30
Q

Do water or lipid soluble hormones have longer lasting effects

A

Lipid: lasts hours to days
Water: lasts milliseconds to minutes

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31
Q

Which glands are involved in plasma calcium concentration homesostasis

A

Thyroid gland, parathyroid glands and kidneys

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32
Q

How does the body use calcium

A

2nd messenger which affect actions of other proteins, interacts with vesicles to facilitate release of neurotransmitter, interacts with myofilaments to facilitate cross bridge formation, stored in bones as hydroxyapatite

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33
Q

Where is most calcium stored

A

In the bones (99%)

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34
Q

How does calcium enter the blood plasma

A

Absorbed into blood from digestive tract, reabsorbed into blood from bone broken down by osteoclasts, reabsorbed back into blood by kidneys

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35
Q

How does calcium exit the blood plasma

A

Osteoblast activity during bone remodeling and growth, filtered out of blood by kidneyslo

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36
Q

Parathyroid glands location

A

Posterior of thyroid hormone (4)

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37
Q

What do parathyroid glands secrete

A

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

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38
Q

What is the most important hormone in calcium homeostasis

A

Parathyroid hormone

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39
Q

What does parathyroid hormone stimulate the kidneys to secrete

A

Calcitriol

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40
Q

What does the thyroid gland secrete in calcium homeostasis

A

Calcitonin (minor role)

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41
Q

What effect does calcitriol have on the digestive system

A

Calcium absorption by blood increased

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42
Q

What type of hormone is parathyroid hormone

A

Water soluble

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43
Q

What effect does PTH have on bones

A

More calcium resorption (more calcium into plasma)

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44
Q

What effect does PTH have on kidneys

A

More calcium reabsorbtion from pre-urine filtrate (more calcium into plasma), more vitamin D converted to calcitriol (acts on digestive tract, kidneys and bone)

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45
Q

What effect does an increase of plasma calcium have on parathyroid glands

A

Decreased secretion of PTH

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46
Q

What effect does a decrease in plasma calcium have on parathyroid glands

A

Increased secretion of PTH

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47
Q

What effect does calcitonin have have on bone

A

Less calcium resorption by osteoclasts (less calcium into plasma)

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48
Q

What effect does calcitonin have on kidneys

A

Less calcium reabsorption from pre-urine filtrate (less calcium into plasma)

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49
Q

How does the body use glucose

A

All body cells use glucose as the main substrate for making ATP, make other substances essential for functioning (e.g gylcoproteins), stored as glycogen or fat

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50
Q

How does glucose enter the blood plasma

A

Absorbed from digestive tract, released into blood by liver

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51
Q

How does glucose exit the blood plasma

A

Removed from blood by all body cells, stored in liver and skeletal muscle as glycogen, and in adipose as fat

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52
Q

Pancreas location

A

Behind stomach on left side of abdomen

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53
Q

Which pancreatic islet cells secrete which hormone

A

Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin

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54
Q

What does glucagon stimulate (glucose gone)

A

Gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis, ketone synthesis

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55
Q

What does insulin stimulate (in, in)

A

All body cells increase uptake of glucose, liver and skeletal muscle cells take excess glucose from blood to store as glycogen, adipose store excess as fat

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56
Q

What type of hormone is calcitriol

A

Water soluble

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57
Q

What type of hormone is calcitonin

A

Water soluble

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58
Q

What is the goal of PTH

A

Increase calcium

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59
Q

What is the goal of calcitonin

A

Decrease calcium

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60
Q

What is the goal of calcitriol

A

Increase calcium

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61
Q

Which connection has a portal bloodstream

A

Hypothalamus to anterior pituitary

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62
Q

How to identify anterior and posterior pituitary

A

Anterior has big belly

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63
Q

Where do posterior pituitary hormones come from

A

Made in hypothalamic neuron cell bodies, then travel down axon and are stored in the axon terminals. Released into main bloodstream when action potential depolarises axon terminal

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64
Q

Posterior pituitary hormones

A

Oxytocin and ADH

65
Q

What does oxytocin do

A

Stimulates milk release during infant feeding, stimulates contraction of uterine walls during childbirth (both positive feedback)

66
Q

What does ADH do

A

Stimulates kidney to reabsorb water when a person is dehydrated

67
Q

Where do anterior pituitary hormones come from

A

Anterior pituitary cells (hypothalamic neurons secrete releasing or inhibiting hormones that travel via a blood portal system to anterior pituitary, bind to membrane receptors on anterior pituitary cells causing anterior pituitary hormones release)

68
Q

Anterior pituitary hormones

A

Growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropin hormone

69
Q

What does growth hormone do

A

Stimulates liver, skeletal muscle and adipose for fuel mobilisation, stimulates liver to release IGF-1 for growth

70
Q

What does TSH do

A

Stimulates thyroid to release thyroid hormones to increase BMR

71
Q

What does ACTH do

A

Stimulates adrenal gland (cortex) to release cortisol in a daily pattern and during the stress response

72
Q

What negatively feeds back on releasing and inhibiting hypothalamic hormones

A

3rd hormone from target endocrine organ

73
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid hormones

A

Thyrotropin releasing hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone (anterior), thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
[T!! for thyroid]

74
Q

What do the thyroid hormones do

A

Increase BMR, stimulation of growth in foetus and childhood, increased mental alertness

75
Q

How are thyroid hormones made

A

Tyrosine (Y) binds to iodine in cells lining thyroid follicles, in thyroglobulin protein (made by thyroid follicles)

76
Q

What hormones do the thyroid gland secrete

A

Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), and calcitonin

77
Q

What does calcitonin do

A

Minor hormone involved in calcium homeostasis

78
Q

What is T3

A

Thyroid hormone: tyrosine with 3 iodine

79
Q

What is T4

A

Thyroid hormone: tyrosine with 4 iodine

80
Q

How are thyroid hormones released

A

T3 and T4 detach from iodised TGB as they’re needed

81
Q

How do lipid soluble hormones have an effect

A

Bind to receptors in nucleus, specific genes activated to transcribe mRNA, specific proteins synthesised leading to effect (45 minutes - days)

82
Q

What is BMR

A

The energy the body requires for its most basic functions to sustain life

83
Q

How do thyroid hormones increase BMR

A

Increase thermogenesis (body heat production), oxygen consumption and ATP production and use, fat and protein breakdown. Also have complex interaction with various organs to ensure enough glucose is available for metabolic processes without significantly disturbing plasma glucose homeostasis

84
Q

When are growth hormone concentrations the highest

A

During sleep (higher in children and highest at puberty)

85
Q

What are the direct effects of growth hormone

A

Fuel mobilisation:
Muscle: inhibits cellular uptake of glucose, stimulates protein synthesis
Liver: stimulates glucose synthesis
Adipose: increases fat breakdown

86
Q

What are the indirect effects of growth hormone

A

Growth:
Via insulin-like growth factor 1, secreted by liver, promotes growth of bones, muscle and other tissue

87
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-liver hormones

A

GHRH, GHIH -> GH -> IGF-1
[G!! Need to Grow to Live]

88
Q

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal hormones

A

CRH -> ACTH -> Cortisol
[C!! adrenal Cortex]

89
Q

What does cortisol do

A

Mobilises fuel (liver, muscle, adipose, pancreas (glucagon)), maintains normal blood pressure (unsure how), suppresses/reduces inflammation to increase immunity

90
Q

When is cortisol highest during a day

A

When you first wake up (sleep patterns disturbed = disturbed cortisol secretion)

91
Q

Where is cortisol secreted from

A

Adrenal cortex

92
Q

Where is aldosterone secreted from

A

Adrenal cortex

93
Q

Where are catecholamines secreted from

A

Adrenal medulla

94
Q

What are catecholamines

A

Adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine)

95
Q

What are the three stages of the stress response

A

Alarm, resistance, exhaustion

96
Q

What physically happens in the alarm phase

A

Increased breathing rate (more oxygen), heart rate and blood pressure (circulation of oxygen and glucose to brain and skeletal muscle), dry mouth (reduced activation of unnecessary functions), dilated pupils

97
Q

What is the control centre for sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

A

Hypothalamus

98
Q

What does stress trigger the hypothalamus to do

A

Activate sympathetic nervous system

99
Q

What hormone do sympathetic nerves trigger the release of in the alarm phase

A

Adrenaline and noradrenaline from the medulla of the adrenal gland

100
Q

What do catecholamines do in the stress response

A

Bind to membrane receptors and lead to amplification of cellular responses to help the body deal with stress

101
Q

What’s the name for fat breakdown in adipose cells

A

Lipolysis

102
Q

What happens generally in the resistance phase

A

Glycogen reserves were depleted in alarm phase so lipid and protein stores need to be mobilised.

103
Q

What is the main hormone of the resistance phase

A

Cortisol

104
Q

When does the resistance phase occur

A

When stress lasts longer than a few hours

105
Q

Which hormones contribute to fuel mobilisation in resistance phase

A

Cortisol, glucagon, adrenaline, growth hormone

106
Q

Which hormones contribute to increased blood pressure in resistance phase

A

Cortisol, ADH, aldosterone

107
Q

Which hormone contributes to reduced inflammation in resistance phase

A

Cortisol

108
Q

What type of cells use fats from adipose and amino acids from skeletal muscle in resistance phase

A

Non neural cells

109
Q

For which cells is glucose primarily mobilised for in resistance pahse

A

Neural tissue

110
Q

How does ADH lead to increased blood pressure in resistance phase

A

Vasoconstriction of blood vessels, stimulates kidney to reabsorb more water into plasma

111
Q

How does aldosterone lead to increased blood pressure in resistance phase

A

Stimulates kidneys to reabsorb more Na+ into plasma, so water follows

112
Q

Why does exhaustion phase occur

A

The body’s compensatory responses are inadequate to sustain health and energy reserves (lipid reserves) are depleted (organs damaged as structural proteins broken down)

113
Q

Diseases linked to prolonged stress

A

Chronic high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease, autoimmune disease

114
Q

What leads to organ failure in exhaustion phase

A

Structural proteins of organs broken down, inability to regulate plasma glucose and ion concentrations

115
Q

What can help to relieve the effects of stress

A

Socialisation and altruistic acts (oxytocin turns stress into resilience), exercise, mindfulness

116
Q

What hormones are lipid soluble

A

Cortisol, aldosterone, thyroid hormones (T3, T4)

117
Q

What can go wrong with hormone signalling

A

Hyposecretion, hypersecretion, hyposensitivty

118
Q

What is Addison’s disease

A

Hyposecretion of cortisol and aldosterone

119
Q

What causes Addison’s disease

A

Autoimmune disease that attacks the adrenal cortex

120
Q

What are the symptoms of Addison’s disease

A

Low blood pressure, low blood glucose (fatigue, drowsiness, muscle weakness)

121
Q

What is Cushing’s disease

A

Hypersecretion of cortisol

122
Q

What causes Cushing’s disease

A

Adrenal cortex tumor or taking glucocorticoid medications for long periods

123
Q

What are the symptoms of Cushing’s disease

A

High blood pressure, thinning of arms and legs and weight gain in torso

124
Q

What are the cortisol disorders

A

Addison’s and Cushing’s
[Addison is tired and lies on a cushion]

125
Q

What is dwarfism

A

Hyposecretion of growth hormone

126
Q

What causes dwarfism

A

Genetic mutation or inheritance

127
Q

What is gigantism

A

Hypersecretion of growth hormone

128
Q

What causes gigantism

A

Tumor in pituitary gland in childhood (resulting in too many anterior pituitary cells)

129
Q

What is acromegaly

A

Hypersecretion of growth hormone

130
Q

What causes acromegaly

A

Pituitary gland tumor in early adulthood

131
Q

What are the symptoms of acromegaly

A

Large and irregularly shaped extremities and characteristic facial features (prominent jaw)

132
Q

What are the growth hormone disorders

A

Dwarfism, gigantism, acromegaly

133
Q

What is infantile hypothyroidism

A

Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone in infants

134
Q

What causes infantile hypothyroidism

A

Missing or poorly developed thyroid gland, poorly functioning anterior pituitary, lack of iodine in mother’s diet

135
Q

What are the symptoms of infantile hypothyroidism

A

Low metabolic rate, delayed growth and development, swollen tongue and around eyes

136
Q

What is adult hypothyroidism

A

Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone in adults

137
Q

What are the causes of adult hypothyroidism

A

Autoimmune disease, iodine deficiency in diet, surgical removal of thyroid gland

138
Q

What are the symptoms of adult hypothyroidism

A

Low metabolic rate, tiredness, weight gain

139
Q

What is a simple goitre

A

Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone

140
Q

What causes a simple goitre

A

Lack of iodine in diet

141
Q

What are the symptoms of a simple goitre

A

Enlarged thyroid gland; a goitre

142
Q

What is Graves disease

A

Hypersecretion of thyroid hormone

143
Q

What causes Graves disease

A

Autoimmune disease

144
Q

What are the symptoms of Graves disease

A

High metabolic rate, weight loss, bulging eyes, goitre

145
Q

What are the thyroid hormone disorders

A

Infantile and adult hypothyroidism, simple goitre, Graves disease

146
Q

What is hyperparathyroidism

A

Hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone

147
Q

What causes hyperparathyroidism

A

Parathyroid tumor

148
Q

What are the symptoms of hyperparathyroidism

A

Bones become soft, deformed and fragile, kidney stones (excess calcium build up)

149
Q

What is hypoparathyroidism

A

Hyposecretion of parathyroid hormone

150
Q

What causes hypoparathyroidism

A

Damaged parathyroid glands due to genetic or autoimmune disease

151
Q

What are the symptoms of hypoparathyroidism

A

Muscle tetany (spasms: calcium dictates muscle contraction), seizures (neurons fire too easily)

152
Q

What are the parathyroid hormone disorders

A

Hyper and hypoparathyroidism

153
Q

What is type 1 diabetes mellitus

A

Hyposecretion of insulin

154
Q

What causes type 1 diabetes

A

Destroyed beta islet cells by a virus or autoimmune disease

155
Q

What are the symptoms of diabetes

A

Polyuria (excessive urine production), polydipsia (excessive thirst)

156
Q

What is type 2 diabetes

A

Chronic insulin resistance and hyposecretion of insulin as beta cells get worn out

157
Q

What causes type 2 diabetes

A

Unhealthy lifestyle (inactivity, poor diet, obesity)

158
Q

What are the insulin disorders

A

Diabetes type 1 and 2

HUBS191 (7 decks)

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