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immunity Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

pathogen

A

disease causing organism e.g bacteria, viruses

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2
Q

vector

A

organism that carries pathogens between hosts e.g mosquitos, food

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3
Q

infectious disease

A

illness caused by invasion of body by pathogen, communicable and transmissible (contagious)

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4
Q

non-infection disease

A

caused by age or degeneration or lifestyle e.g Alzheimer’s, diabetes, obesity

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5
Q

genetic disease

A

due to mutations inherited from parents e.g cystic fibrosis

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6
Q

autoimmune disease

A

caused by immune system targeting body cells or tissue cells e.g diabetes 1

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7
Q

bacteria

A

prokaryotic, unicellular organisms with a simple internal structure, has no nucleus and DNA floats freely in cytoplasm or in form of circular plasmid

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8
Q

structure of bacteria

A

slime layer: around outside of bacteria, protects bacteria from drying out
cell wall: made of carbohydrate protein, rigid
flagella: for movement, may make toxins to kill other cells
capsule: formed of complex carbohydrates for protection
cytoplasm: looks granular because of ribosomes
no membrane bound organelles

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9
Q

virus

A

infect a living cell and its DNA/RNA and induce the cell to manufacture more virus particles, new particles leave the cell and infect other cells, can only survive and reproduce inside a living host cell,

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10
Q

virus component

A

capsid: protein coat to protect genome
lipid/protein envelope: help it enter host cell/proteins (stolen from cell membrane of host)
nucleic acid genome: either DNA or RNA
enveloped: has membrane around them

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11
Q

reproductive cycle of retrovirus

A
  1. Binding and entry
  2. Reverse transcription: RNA > DNA
  3. Integration: DNA enters nucleus, integrates into DNA of host, viral DMA is read by host cell
  4. Transcription and translation: cell produces new viral proteins and new protein coat
  5. Assembly and release: assemble into new virus and exit cell (causing the cell to burst) which releases new viruses
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12
Q

protection against infection

A

antibiotics, antivirals, vaccine, quarantine, reduce population, reduce travelling, increase personal hygiene, disinfectants and antiseptics, sterilisation

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13
Q

contagious pathogen

A

passed directly from one person to another

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14
Q

transmission by contact

A

spread of pathogen by actual physical contact

direct: actually touching an infected person e.g kissing, shaking hands
indirect: touching an object that has been touched by an infected individual

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15
Q

transmission by ingestion

A

food or drink contaminated with pathogen may result in disease e.g salmonella food poisoning

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16
Q

transmission by transfer of body fluids

A

from one person to another e.g when blood or other body fluids from an infected person comes into contact with mucuos membranes e.g nose/ genitals/bloodstream of unaffected person through a break in skin or needle then pathogen enters body

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17
Q

transmission of infection by droplets

A

may occur when tiny droplets of moisture containing pathogenic organisms are emitted when breathing, talking or sneezing/coughing, droplets may be breathed in by others or settle on food/utensils

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18
Q

transmission of pathogen: airborne

A

when moisture in exhaled droplets evaporates, virus remains viable and can cause infection when inhaled by others

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19
Q

transmission by vectors

A

transfer of pathogens by other animals e.g insects, some transfer pathogen directly others may spread pathogen to food or water

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20
Q

non specific defence against disease

A

work against all pathogens, first line of defence

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21
Q

specific defences against disease

A

directed at a particular pathogen

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22
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: skin

A

effective barrier covering outside of body, very good at stopping entry of microorganisms (if there is no cure/abrasions) at openings e,g eyes/mouth/anus there is special protection provided by other defences
BACTERIA: live on skin all the time and normal bacteria occupy a lot of area so pathogens find it difficult to become established

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23
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: sebum

A

oily secretions produced by oil glands in skin, contain substances that kill pathogenic bacteria

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24
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: sweat

A

secreted in skin, contains salts and fatty acids that prevent growth of many microorganisms

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25
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: mucus

A

mucuos membranes line body’s cavities that open to exterior, they secrete mucus which trap particles therefore inhibits entry of microorganisms to organs

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26
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: hair

A

found in nasal cavities, in the nose the hairs and a layer of mucus trap 90% of particles inhaled when breathing

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27
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: cilia

A

tiny hair like projections from cells that are capable of a beating motion, mucuous membrane that line nasal cavity, trachea and other air passages have cilia, beating movement of cilia moves the mucus containing trapped particles and microorganisms toward throat where they can be coughed up or swallowed

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28
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: acid

A

stomach juices are strongly acidic and this kills many bacteria taken in with food or contained in mucus swallowed from nose/windpipe, vagina also has acidic secretions that reduce growth or microorganisms and sweat is slightly acidic

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29
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: lysosomes

A

enzymes that kill bacteria, eyes are protected by flushing action of tears, which contain this enzyme and is also found in saliva, sweat, secretion of nose, tissue fluid

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30
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: cerumen

A

ear wax, protects the outer ear against infection by some bacteria, slightly acidic, contains lysosomes

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31
Q

external non specific defences: first line of defence: movement of fluid

A

flushing action of body helps keep some areas relatively free of pathogens, urine flowing through urethra has cleansing action which prevents bacteria, growth and helps stop bacteria texting bladder or kidneys, tears, sweat, saliva are also flushing actions

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32
Q

reflex

A

automatic involuntary response to a stimuli, helps protect body from injury e,g blinking or vomiting

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33
Q

sneezing

A
  • stimulus is irritation of walls of nasal cavity, may be caused by noxious fumes or dust particles likely to be carrying microorganisms, forceful expulsion of air from lungs, carries mucus, foreign particles and irritating gases out through nose/ mouth
34
Q

coughing

A

stimulus = irritation in lower respiratory tract, air is forced from lungs to try and remove irritant, air drive mucus and foreign matter up trachea toward throat/mouth

35
Q

vomiting

A

psychological stimuli or excessive stretching of stomach and bacterial toxins can induce vomiting, contraction of muscles of abdomen/diaphragm (not stomach) expels stomach contents

36
Q

diarrhoea

A

irritation of small or large intestines by bacteria, viruses or protozoans, causes increased contraction of muscles along wall of intestines so irritant is removed as quickly as possible, material does not stay in large intestine long enough to be absorbed so faeces are watery

37
Q

internal nonspecific defences: 2nd line of defence: phagocytes

A

specialised white blood cells

38
Q

internal nonspecific defences: 2nd line of defence: leucocytes

A

engulf and digest microorganisms/cell debris

39
Q

internal nonspecific defences: 2nd line of defence: monocytes and macrophages

A

if tissue becomes inflamed monocytes leave blood stream and enter tissue, they differentiate into macrophages (large phagocytic cells) these move through tissue looking for and destroying pathogens, others are in fixed places and only deal with pathogens that come to them
- macrophages are important in removing microbes and dying cells through phagocytosis

40
Q

internal nonspecific defences: 2nd line of defence: neutrophils

A

First cell to move to tissue to destroy pathogen by phagocytosis during an infection, short lifespan and dies after a few days, dead cells make up large portion of pus that forms after infection

41
Q

internal nonspecific defences: 2nd line of defence: dendritic cells

A

characterised by projections from cytoplasm, have ability to use info about ingested particles to assist with specific immunity

42
Q

inflammation

A

response to any damage to tissue, reduces the spread of pathogen to destroy them and prevent entry of additional pathogens, remove damaged tissue and cell debris, begin repair of damaged tissue

43
Q

steps of inflammation

A
  1. mechanical damage/local chemical changes: cause mast cells to become activated by complement proteins, triggers release of histamine and heparin into tissue fluid
  2. Histamine increases blood flow and causes capillaries to become more permeable so more fluid moves through capillary wall into tissue which causes heat and redness and causes swelling
  3. Heparin: prevents clotting in immediate area of injury, clot of fluid forms around damaged area which slows spread of pathogen into healthy tissue
  4. complement system proteins & some chemicals released by mast cells attract phagocytes which actively consume microorganisms and debris
  5. abnormal conditions in tissue stimulate pain receptors so person feels pain
  6. phagocytes filled with bacteria, debris and dead cells begin to die and this forms yellow liquid pus
  7. new cells are produced by mitosis and repair of damaged cells takes place
44
Q

fever

A

change in body temperature due to resetting of body’s thermostat controlled by the hypothalamus to a higher level, due to pyrogen: released by white blood cells during inflammatory response, temperature is still regulated just at an abnormally high level

45
Q

symptoms of fever

A

person feels cold, and responds by shivering which increases heat production and vasoconstriction which prevents heat loss and increase body temp significantly

46
Q

fever break

A

body’s thermostat returns to normal and the person feels hot and appears flushed, vasodilation in skin and profuse sweating occurs to cool body back to normal temperature

47
Q

function of lymphatic system

A

collect fluid that escapes from blood capillaries and return it to circulatory system, important part of body’s internal defence against pathogens

48
Q

lymphatic node

A

contains masses of lymphoid tissue whos cells are crisscrossed by network of fibres, lymph entering lymph nodes contains cell debris, foreign particles and microorganisms that have gotten past body’s external defences, larger particles are trapped in network of fibres as lymph flows through spaces in nodes, macrophages ingest and destroy these particles by phagocytosis

49
Q

immune system

A

composed of cells and proteins that protect against a foreign organism, range of chemicals as well as cancerous and other abnormal cells

50
Q

homeostatic mechanism

A

helps deal with invasion and restore internal environment to normal condition

51
Q

B-cells and T-cells

A

lymphocytes both produced in bone marrow and end up in lymphoid tissue however they mature differently, half cells produced in bone marrow go to thymus and mature into T-cells, other cells mature in bone marrow to become B-cells then become part of lymphoid tissue

52
Q

humoral response definition

A

antibody mediated immunity, involved production of antibodies by B-cells which circulate around body and attack invading pathogens

53
Q

cell mediated immunity definition

A

due to T-cells and involves formation of special lymphocytes that destroy invading pathogens

54
Q

antigens

A

any substance that is capable of causing a specific immune response

55
Q

self antigens

A

large molecules produced in a persons own body and do not cause immune response

56
Q

antibodies

A

y shaped specialised proteins produced by plasma cells in response to non self antigens, belong to group of proteins (immunoglobulin : lg), produced in response to antigen and can combine with a particular shape, antibody has complementary shape which allows them to fit together (lock and key)

57
Q

antibody mediated immunity

A

provides resistance to viruses, bacteria, bacterial toxins, before microorganisms enter the body’s cell, when antigen activated the B-cells enlarge and divide into clones which become plasma cells which secrete specific antibodies capable of attaching to antigen, antibodies circulate in blood and lymph/extracellular fluid to reach site of invasion of microorganism, remaining B-cells become memory cells and spread to all body tissues which allow the response to occur more rapidly if antigen enters body again

58
Q

primary response

A

immune response to first exposure to an antigen, body reacts slowly and take several days to build large amounts of antibodies and takes time for B-cells to multiply and differentiate into plasma cells and secrete antibodies

59
Q

secondary response

A

subsequent exposure to same antigen, response is much faster bc of memory cells and plasma cells are able to form quickly with antigen body levels in blood plasma rising rapidly and lasts longer than primary response

60
Q

process of antibodies working

A

may:

  • inactivate foreign enzyme/toxins, combining with them or inhibiting the antigens reaction with other cells
  • binds to surface of viruses and prevents up them from entering cell
  • coats bacteria so they are easily consumed by phagocytes
  • dissolve organisms
  • cause particles to clump together (agglutination)
  • react with soluble substances to make them insoluble, more easily consumed by phagocytes
61
Q

cell mediated immunity

A

provides resistance to intracellular phase of bacterial/viral infections, these invade and replicate inside hosts own cells, more difficult to overcome, involved in rejection of transplant of foreign tissue and fighting cancer cells, T-lymphocytes are responsible

62
Q

process of cell mediated immunity

A
  • foreign antigen enters body and particular type of T-cell programmed for that antigen becomes activated (only occurs after B-cell enters foreign antigen and travels to lymph node and presents it to T-cells
  • the sensitised T-cells enlarge and divide forming clones, some cells of clone stay in lymphoid tissue as memory cells and others develop into
  • killer T-cells: migrate to site of infection and deal with invading antigen, attach to invading cell and secrete substance that destroys antigen then searches for more antigens
  • helper T cells: secrete number of substances that cause lymphocytes at infection to become sensitised and increases intensity of reaction, attract macrophages to place of infection so they can destroy antigen by phagocytosis, intensify phagocytic activity of macrophages
  • suppressor T cells: act when immune activity becomes excessive or infection has been dealt with, releases substances that inhibit T-cells and B-cells activity,slowing down immune response
63
Q

immunity

A

resistance to infection by invading microorganisms, presence of memory cells allows body to respond quickly enough to deal with any invasion by pathogenic microorganisms before symptoms of disease occur

64
Q

natural immunity

A

occurs without any human interventions

65
Q

artificial immunity

A

results from giving people antibody

66
Q

passive immunity

A

when a person receives antibodies produced by someone else and individuals body plays no part in production of antibodies, can occur naturally e.g antibodies from mother pass across placenta to foetus, occur artificially when one is injected with antibodies to combat a particular infection when one is injected with antibodies o combat a particular infection, this method is only short lived and only lasts until antibodies are broken down and excreted

67
Q

active immunity

A

results when body is exposed to foreign antigen and manufactures antibodies in response to the antigen, lasts longer than passive immunity due to presence of memory cells

68
Q

vaccination

A

artificial introduction of antigens of pathogenic organisms so ability to produce those appropriate antibodies is aquifer (memory cells formed) without person having to suffer diseases

69
Q

immunisation

A

programming immune system so body can respond rapidly to infecting microorganisms

70
Q

types of vaccine: live attenuated vaccines

A

live microorganisms that has been reduced in force or strength, microorganisms with reduced ability to produce disease symptoms, manufactures antibodies against antigen

71
Q

types of vaccine: inactivated vaccines

A

contain dead microorganisms, shorter lasting than live attenuated microorganisms but follows same idea

72
Q

types of vaccine: toxoid vaccines

A

toxins produced by bacteria can be inactivated so when injected they do not make person ill but person develops antibodies

73
Q

vaccine delivery

A

injection, orally, in lumps of sugar

74
Q

herd immunity

A

group of immunity that occurs when such a high proportion of people in a population are immunised, those who are not immune are protected as it reduces chances of transmission

75
Q

antibiotics

A

drugs used to fight infections of microorganisms especially bacteria

76
Q

bacterial antibiotics

A

kill bacteria by changing structure of cell wall/membrane or by disrupting action of enzymes

77
Q

bacteriostatic antibiotics

A

stop bacteria from reproducing, usually by disrupting protein synthesis

78
Q

narrow spectrum antibiotics

A

effective only against specific types of bacteria

79
Q

multiple drug resistance

A

resistance to some strains of bacteria to most available antibiotic, increases by overuse

80
Q

total drug resistance

A

resistance of some strains of bacteria to all antibiotics

Human Biology (8 decks)

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