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Phase 1 Medicine (Extra) > IMMS > Flashcards

IMMS Flashcards

1
Q

What does iron haematoxylin stain and what colour?

A

Stains nuclei and elastic fibres black.

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2
Q

What happens in prometaphase of mitosis?

A
  • Nuclear membrane breaks down
  • Microtubules invade nuclear space
  • Chromatids attach to microtubules
  • Cell no longer has a nucleus
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3
Q

What is a barrbody?

A

The inactive X chromosome in a female cell, which has been packaged as heterochromatin.

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4
Q

What types of lipids are synthesised by the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Membrane lipids

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5
Q

In which types of cells are you able to see the golgi apparatus?

A

Plasma cells

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6
Q

In which part of the golgi apparatus does protein phosphorylation occur?

A

Cis golgi

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7
Q

What creates a low pH in lysosomes and why is it needed?

A

H+ ATPase creates low pH to enable acid hydrolases to function.

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8
Q

What is the role of peroxisomes?

A

Oxidation of long-chain fatty acids
Generate hyrdrogen peroxide from breakdown of fatty acids.
Destroy hydrogen peroxide.

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9
Q

What is the role of cytoskeleton microfilaments?

A

Forms a bracing mesh

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10
Q

What is the role of cytoskeleton intermediate filaments?

A

Spread tensile forces through tissues

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11
Q

What are the 6 proteins which act as intermediate filaments and where are they found?

A
  • Cytokeratin in epithelial cells
  • Desmin in myocytes
  • Glial fibrillary acidic protein in astrocytic glial cells
  • Neurofilament protein in neurons
  • Nuclear laminin in the nuclei of all cells
  • Vimentin in mesodermal cells
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12
Q

What is the centrosome composed of?

A

Two centrioles

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13
Q

What are the basic molecular building blocks?

A 
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur
Phosphate
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14
Q

What is the general formula of carbohydrates?

A

Cn(H2O)n

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15
Q

Which optical isomer of carbohydrates is present in living organisms?

A

The D isomer

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16
Q

What is a proteoglycan?

A

Long, unbranched polysaccharides radiating from a core protein.

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17
Q

What happens to the melting point as the degree of unsaturation of a fatty acid increases?

A

It decreases

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18
Q

Which optical isomer of amino acids is present in living organisms?

A

The L isomer

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19
Q

What is a supersecondary structure of a protein?

A

A combination of secondary structures.

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20
Q

What factors can influence the rate of a reaction?

A
  • Temperature
  • pH
  • Concentration
  • Surface area
  • Pressure
  • Catalyst
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21
Q

What is an isoenzyme?

A

Enzymes that have a different structure but catalyse the same reaction.

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22
Q

What is a coenzyme?

A

They cannot themselves catalyse a reaction but can help enzymes to do so.

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23
Q

How do activation-transfer coenzymes work?

A

They form a covalent bond and are regenerated at the end of the reaction.

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24
Q

What is heme made up of?

A

A porphyrin ring containing iron.

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25
What types of bonds define the loop characteristics of an immunoglobulin?
Disulfide bonds
26
Describe the coiling of DNA.
Nucleosomes > Supercoils > Chromosomes
27
Why is DNA synthesised in the 5' to 3' direction?
The 5' end has a phosphate group which is used to provide the energy for the reaction to occur.
28
What is the role of topoisomerase?
Unwinds the DNA helix by relieving the supercoils.
29
What is the role of a single strand binding protein (SSB)?
Keeps the two strands of DNA apart whilst synthesis of new DNA occurs.
30
What is the role of primase?
RNA polymerase that synthesises the short RNA primers needed in DNA replication.
31
What is the role of RNAse H?
Removes the RNA primers that previously began DNA strand synthesis.
32
Why are primers necessary in DNA replication?
DNA polymerase can only extend a nucleotide chain, not start one.
33
What is the role of DNA ligase?
Joins together Okazaki fragments of the lagging DNA strand.
34
What is a TATA box?
A short DNA sequence on the 5' end of the first exon of a gene around which a transcription complex forms.
35
What type (size) of ribosome is found in eukaryotic cells?
80s (formed of a 60s and 40s subunit)
36
What is the start codon on mRNA?
AUG
37
What are the stop codons on mRNA?
UGA, UAG, UAA
38
What is primary transcript mRNA?
An exact complementary copy to DNA, the introns have not yet been removed.
39
What is exon shuffling?
Where exons are not joined together in the same order after splicing. It allows new proteins to be made, leading to variation.
40
What would be the result of a mutation to a regulatory sequence in DNA?
The coding sequence would still be intact but the gene itself is switched on/off.
41
What are four methods of DNA repair?
- Base excision - Nucleotide excision - Mismatch repair - Transcription-coupled repair
42
Which tri-nucleotide repeat is implicated in Huntington's disease?
CAG
43
Which amino acid are amino acid hormones synthesised from?
Tyrosine
44
What type of substances does pinocytosis engulf into the cell?
Dissolved solutes
45
How do enzyme linked receptors work?
They transfer a phosphate group from ATP to a protein in a cell.
46
Which metabolic fuels contribute to ATP production at rest?
Carbohydrates (30%) | Lipids (70%)
47
What is the difference between a nucleoside and a nucleotide?
A nucleoside has just a sugar and base, and a nucleotide has a sugar, base, and phosphate.
48
How does ATP give out energy?
The energy released from making the new bond between a substrate and the hydrolysed phosphate group is greater than the energy required to break the bond between the phosphate groups.
49
What is the overall equation for glycolysis?
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2NAD+ > 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2H2O
50
What is a kinase enzyme?
Adds/removes a phosphate group to things from an ATP.
51
What is an isomerase enzyme?
Enzyme that rearranges the structure of a substrate without changing the molecular formula.
52
What is an aldolase enzyme?
Creates or breaks carbon-carbon bonds.
53
What is an enolase enzyme?
Produces a carbon=carbon double bond by removing a hydroxyl (OH) group.
54
What is the equation for anaerobic respiration?
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi > 2lactate + 2ATP + 2H2O
55
What is the fate of lactate from anaerobic respiration?
- Taken up by the heart and brain and converted back to pyruvate - Taken up by the liver and used in gluconeogenesis
56
What is the overall equation for the Kreb's cycle?
Acetyl CoA + 3NAD+ + FAD + GDP + ADP + Pi + 2H2O > 2CO2 + CoA + 3NADH + 3H+ + FADH2 + GTP + ATP
57
How is ATP formed in the Kreb's cycle?
GDP is converted to GTP by gaining a phosphate group. The phosphate group is then transferred to ATP reforming GDP.
58
Describe the carnitine shuttle.
Carnitine acyltransferase 1 removes CoA from the acyl-CoA and adds carnitine to form acyl carnitine. Acyl carnitine diffuses into mitochondrion. Carnitine acyltransferase 2 removes carnitine and adds CoA to reform acyl-CoA. Carnitine diffuses out of mitochondrion to pick up another acyl-CoA.
59
What are the products of fatty acid beta oxidation?
Acetyl-CoA NADH FADH2
60
Which tissues can use ketone bodies for energy?
Heart and skeletal muscle in the early stages of starvation. | Brain when glucose levels further decrease.
61
Describe the four stages of oxygen metabolism.
- Oxygen reduced to superoxide anion (O2-) - Superoxide anion reduced to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) - Hydrogen peroxide reduced to hydroxyl radicals (OH*) - Hydroxyl radicals reduced to water (H2O)
62
Are hydroxyl radicals (OH*) water or lipid soluble? | What is the significance of this?
Lipid soluble | They can damage lipid bilayers and cause damage away from the site of formation.
63
What are some antioxidant enzymes which protect against oxygen toxicity?
Superoxide dismutase Catalase Glutathione peroxidase
64
What is the anion gap and what is it used for?
The difference in serum concentration of cations (positive) and anions (negative). (Na+ + K+) - (HCO3- + Cl-) Can be used to diagnose the cause of metabolic acidosis (excessive H+ or too little HCO3-).
65
Describe the histological appearance of hyaline cartilage.
No visible fibres
66
Describe the histological appearance of elastic cartilage.
Visible elastic fibres within the matrix
67
Describe the histological appearance of fibrous cartilage.
Collagen fibres visible parallel to each other
68
Describe tropocollagen.
A triple helix of peptides secreted by fibroblasts.
69
What is the exocoelomic sac?
The primitive yolk sac
70
What are the two layers of the extraembryonic mesoderm?
Splanchnopleuric (visceral) layer Somatopleuric (parietal) layer The space inbetween is called the extraembryonic/chorionic cavity.
71
Which part of the embryo is responsible for the formation of the blood vessels which will connect the embryo to the placenta?
Extraembryonic mesoderm
72
What do somites form?
Myotome (muscle tissue) Sclerotome (cartilage and bone) Dermatome (dermis of the skin)
73
What are the two layers of lateral plate mesoderm and what do they give rise to?
Somatic (parietal) layer - forms the future body wall Splanchnic (visceral) layer - forms circulatory system, connective tissue for the glands, and muscle, connective tissue, & peritoneal components of the gut
74
What is the oropharyngeal membrane?
Located at the cranial end of the embryonic disk and contains only ectoderm and endoderm. Represents the future opening of the oral cavity.
75
What is the cloacal membrane formed of?
Ectoderm and endoderm

Phase 1 Medicine (Extra) (7 decks)

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