Identity and Individual Flashcards
1
Q
Personality
A
Collection of lasting characteristics that makes a person unique
2
Q
Trait Theory (of Personality)
A
Personality consists of a set of TRAITS, which are characteristics that vary btwn people and are stable over the course of the lifetime, REGARDLESS OF EVNTAL FACTORS
- does not care about internal processes that shape personality and translate personality traits into behaviour
3
Q
Twin studies
A
Useful in separating the effects of genetics and the envt by building a picture of which traits are more closely tied to genetics than others
4
Q
Psychoanalytic Theory
A
There exists a universal personality structure that contributes both to behaviour and to differences btwn people
- opposite of trait theory and biological theories
- personality is determined by the flow of psychic energy btwn 3 systems that reside in diff levels of consciousness: id, superego, and ego
5
Q
Id*
A
Seeks instant gratification w/ no consideration for morality or social norms
- present from birth and motivated by desire to achieve immediate gratification and avoid pain
6
Q
Superego*
A
Internalization of society’s rules for moral behaviour, learned primarily through interactions w/ caregivers
7
Q
Ego*
A
Directs behaviour in a way that balances demands of id and the superego
8
Q
Behaviourist Theory
A
Personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur through interactions btwn individual and their envt
- it is the envt that shapes behaviour, not internal/innate factors
9
Q
Social Cognitive Theory (of Personality)
A
- like behaviourist theory, focuses on learning experiences and observable behaviours
- diff from behaviourist theory b/c considers contributions of an individual’s mental life and personal choices
- this theory explains how THOUGHT AND EMOTION affect both learning process and experiences and surroundings that ppl choose for themselves
- includes OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
- includes reciprocal causation*: behaviour, personal factors, and envt continually interact and influence each other
10
Q
Observational Learning
A
- process of SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
- people learn from the experiences of others and apply the lessons of previous experiences to new situations
11
Q
Humanistic Theory
A
People continually seek experiences that make them better , more fulfilled individuals
- like SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY, it’s about individual shaping his or her own personality
- CONSCIOUS DECISIONSSSSSS make ppl who they are, not about uncontrollable impulses!
- diff from other theories b/c it considers individual’s views of SELF (i.e.. self, ideal self, perceived self)
12
Q
Situational approach to explaining behaviour
A
People behave according to their interpretations of the situations
- not about internal, stable traits but about external, changing circumstances
13
Q
Identity
A
Person’s view of who they are in terms of both internal factors, including personality traits, and social or external factors, like group membership
- has PERSONAL AND SOCIAL COMPONENTS
14
Q
Self-concept
A
- most personal aspect of identity
- knowledge of one-self as a person both separate from other people and constant throughout changing situations
- a person’s view of his/her personality
- developed through interactions w/ others
- has PERSONAL AND INTERNAL ASPECTS OF IDENTITY
15
Q
Social identity
A
Perception of oneself as a member of certain SOCIAL GROUPS
- involves cognitive and emotional component (attachment with the social group that an individual identifies with)
- entered around GROUP MEMBERSHIP
16
Q
Social groups
A
- have associated characteristics that shapes a person’s social identity
17
Q
Influence of culture and socialization
A
- important for identity development
- both shape a person’s identity inevitably!
18
Q
Socialization
A
Process in which developing individuals learn the values, norms, and appropriate behaviours of their society, continuing throughout the lifespan
19
Q
Influence of Individuals
A
- also important in identity formation
- eg. children interact with individuals who are immediately available to them (family members) and observe how these ppl interact
- leads children to IMITATE their behaviours
20
Q
Imitation
A
- important in identity
- allows children to view themselves as similar to the imitated person
- allows children to get involved in ROLE-TAKING
21
Q
Role-taking
A
Adopting the role of another person, either by imitating behaviours associated w/ specific social roles or by taking the other person’s point of view in a social interaction
22
Q
Reference group
A
People REFER to their REFERence group for guidance in behaviour
- provides individual w/ a model for appropriate actions, values and worldviews
- for a group to serve as a person’s reference group, the individual must either be or aspire to be a member of that group
23
Q
In-group
A
Individuals identify themselves as being part of this group
24
Q
Out-group
A
Individuals do not identify themselves as being part of this group
25
Self-esteem
Person's overall value judgement of him- or herself
| - children tend to have very high self-esteem and then level off over the course of development
26
Self-efficacy
Feeling of being able to carry out an action successfully
27
Locus of control
Person's belief about the extent to which internal or external factors play a role in shaping his or her life
eg. an individual w/ a completely internal locus of control believes that he/she has complete control over their behaviour and events
eg. an individual w/ an external locus of control believes that he/she has no control over behaviours and events (eg. luck, envt, ppl)
28
Freud's theory of developmental stages (Psychosexual Theory of Development)
Each psychosexual stage is based on the impulses of id
- each stage presents a challenge to be navigate
- if a child gets too much or too little satisfaction of the urge associated w/ a particular stage, they may fail to move on to the next stage (fixation*)
29
Erik Erikson
Psychosocial Theory of Development
- interaction btwn self and society that is experienced across the lifespan
- each stage presents a crisis that must be resolved
- dilemma is between 2 opposite ways of viewing the world, one of which is more psychologically healthy than the other
30
Leo vygotsky
Social interaction/SOCIALIZATION is important in learning and cognitive development
- interactions w/ others promote acquisition of culturally valued behaviours and beliefs
- contrasts with Piaget's theory of cognitive development
- children attain higher levels of development w/ guidance of adults and peers (not about having children to go through STAGES)
31
Kohlberg's theory of moral development
1. Precontentional Morality
2. Conventional Morality
3. Postcontentional Morality
32
Preconventional level (Kohlberg's moral development)
Moral judgements that are based solely on consideration of the anticipated consequences of behaviour
- includes: punishment and reward
33
Conventional level (Kohlberg's moral development)
Considers social judgements
| - includes: social disapproval and rule following
34
Postconventional level (Kohlberg's moral development)
Beyond personal and interpersonal considerations; about universal principles and fully-developed ideas about right and wrong
- includes: social contract and universal ethics
35
Attribution Theory
Conscious and unconscious processes both contribute to the formation of ideas about what caused another person to behave in a particular way
36
Dispositional Attribution
Assigning an internal locus of control to another person
| - eg. "you're late because you're careless"
37
Situational Attribution
Assigning an external locus of control to another person
| - eg. "you're late because of traffic problems"
38
Fundamental attribution error
Tendency to automatically favour dispositional attributions over situational ones when judging other people
- another person commits an action because of their personal qualities and not because of environmental influences
- this error happens because it takes less time, info, and attention to create dispositional attributions than situational attributions
39
Self-serving bias
Tendency to attribute one's success to internal factors while attributing one's failures to external (envtal) factors
40
How culture affects attributions
Cultural differences may affect unconscious cognitive processing, conscious attempts to consider situational influences, or both
- it is proven that self-serving bias and fundamental attributional error is more common in Western cultures than Eastern cultures. that is because Western ppl have a more individualistic POV
41
How self-perceptiosn affect attributions
When we identify ourselves as part of a certain reference group, we adopt beliefs from that group as well
- those beliefs affect how we attribute ppl
42
How perceptions of envt affect attributions
Can influence conscious or unconscious stereotype activation
- eg. when subjects were put into dark surroundings, their brains unconscious activate stereotypes of of similar danger (black men)
43
Identity achievement
Successful resolution of the identity crisis (in Erikson's identity vs role confusion state) with a strong sense of identity after exploring multiple possible identities
44
Identity foreclosure
Person has sense of identity but has failed to undergo an identity crisis, instead choosing to unquestioningly adopt the values and expectations of others
45
Identity
An adolescent in the midst of identity crisis, actively attempting to develop a unique set of values nd an understanding of self in society
46
Identity diffusion
No sense of identity or motivation to engage in identity exploration
- opposite state of identity achievement
- this state like Erikson's "role confusion"
47
Somatic symptom and related disorders
This approach incorporates: psychological, biological, and social conditions
Somatoform disorders characterized by bodily symptoms (eg. pain, fatigue, motor problems) along w/ associated psychological symptoms that cause significant problems for the individual
- main idea: psychology and biology influence each other to create somatoform disorders
48
Biomedical model
Biological disease leads to psychological effects
49
Anxiety disorders
Experience of unwarranted fear and anxiety, physiological tension, and behaviours associated w/ the emotional and physical experience of anxiety
- commonly connected to worries about future and hypothetical circumstances, rather than actual events in the present
- often experienced in response to STRESS
- involves significant SNS activation - body prepares for "fight-or-flight" even when threat isn't present
50
Generalised anxiety disorder*
Excessive, persistent anxiety is triggered by a wide variety of stimuli
51
Panic disorder*
Experience of frequent panic attacks, short-lived instances of overwhelming SNS activation and fear
- may be so severe that he individual fears they will die
52
Phobias*
Excessive fear of a specific object or situation, as well as active attempts to avoid that stimulus
53
Mood disorders
Defined by 2 extremes: extreme sadness and despair (depression vs excitement so intense that it is detrimental to well-being (mania)
- temporary states of psychological dysfunction
54
Depression
Pervasive feelings of sadness and hopelessness and/or the loss of interest in activities that an individual usually enjoys
- these ppl also experiences physical and cognitive symptoms (eg. sleeping, eating, thoughts of suicide, inability to concentrate)
- heritability chances: 40% (strong!)
> however, in order to inherit depression, need to acquire multiple recessive genes
- 2 hypotheses that explain cause of depression:
a) monoamine hypothesis*
b) hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis*
55
Monoamine hypothesis*
- tries to explain cause of depression
Involves monoamine neurotransmitters (serotonin, norepinephrine/noradrenaline, and dopamine)
- there's a deficiency of these neurotransmitters in the synapse, which causes depression
- proof: monoamine oxidase inhibitors (inhibit breakdown of monoamines) increases the availability of monoamines in brain -> less depression
56
Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis*
- tries to explain cause of depression
Hypothalamus releases hormone, which makes pituitary gland to secrete ACTH, which makes adrenal cortex secrete cortisol
- over activation of this stress response system causes depression
57
Bipolar disorders*
These patients have episodes of mania and depression
- manic episodes: uncontrollable impulses and reckless decisions, distortion of self-concept, self-esteem HUGELY ELEVATED
58
Schizophrenia
Impaired connection w/ reality
- schizophrenic patient experiences AT LEAST ONE of the following POSITIVE symptoms: hallucinations (sensory experience that is not real), delusions (unreasonable belief), disorganized speech (nonsensical trains of thought, respond inappropriately)
- NEGATIVE symptoms: lack of emotion, motivation, and enjoyment of activities
- heritability: very high for closely related ppl and less for more distantly related ppl
- excess dopamine activity
- brain atrophy
- also involves interaction btwn genetic predisposition and envtal factors: eg. complications during pregnancy can make infant who is highly at risk for schizophrenia to develop the disorder
59
Dissociative disorders
Experience of dissociation: split btwn diff aspects of psychological functioning
- disruption in identity, memory or consciousness
- temporary state of psychological dysfunction
60
Psychological disorders
Sets of psychological abnormalities that are maladaptive to the individual
- temporary state of psychological dysfunction
61
Dissociative amnesia*
Person forgets about past events
- often associated w/ traumatic experience -> this makes sense because you want to distant yourself from traumatic experience
- a type of NEGATIVE symptom: loss of memory
- eg. patient w/ dissociative amnesia might lose conscious memory of a car wreck or the death of a parent
62
Depersonalization/derealization disorder*
Type of POSITIVE symptom: Self or surroundings are unreal and disconnected from individual
63
Dissociative identity disorder/multiple personality disorder*
Significant disruption of stable identity
| - patient has multiple, distinct personalities
64
Personality disorders
Have tendency to endure across diff situations and over course of lifetime
- development of personality traits that cause psychological and social dysfunction
