Ideal/non-ideal theory

Question 1

Cohen - what does he argue is the aim of political theory and how it should be conducted?

Answer 1

FACT-INSENSITIVE

1. Normative political theory shouldn’t be sensitive to existing social practices and facts
2. Task of political philosophy = elaborate fundamental, fact-insensitive principles
3. Fact-sensitive principles must ultimately be grounded by fact-insensitive principle

Question 2

Miller’s response to Cohen’s argument that political theory should aim to elaborate fundamental, fact-insensitive principles?

Answer 2

1. All theorizing sensitive to certain facts
2. Example - principles like justice and equality apply to humans due to features like rationality/self-consciousness
3. Implication - even unrealistic ideal theorizing has to presuppose certain essential facts about humand
4. Key question – NOT whether normative political theory should be sensitive to facts at all (it must be), but WHICH TYPES OF FACTS it should be sensitive to

Question 3

Miller - what does he argue should be the approach of political theory, and why?

Answer 3

REALISTICALLY UTOPIAN

1. Purpose of political philosophy = guide action
2. To guide action, must not be totally unacceptable to people
3. People can’t reasonably be expected to act on principles they find totally unacceptable
4. Therefore political theory should be fact-sensitive

Question 4

Problem if political theory abstracts too much from existing social practices and facts?

Answer 4

Won’t offer actionable recommendations for today (is this its purpose?)

Question 5

Purposes of political philosophy

Answer 5

1. Actionable recommendations for today
2. Long-term goals
3. Evaluate progress
4. Clarify underlying concepts and help understand trade-offs
5. Better understand role and impact of particular constraints

Question 6

‘Displacement’ realist criticism of ideal theory

Answer 6

1. Many ideal theories theories see success as elimination of resistance/conflict and consensus around own theory’s particular ideal
2. Assume task of political theory = resolve institutional questions and get politics ‘over and done with’
3. False aspirations of certainty/agreement are misleading and dangerous, ignoring fundamental political contestation that is essential and unavoidable part of democracy

Question 7

Mouffe’s distinction between ‘politics’ and ‘the political?

Answer 7

1. The political – dimension of antagonism constitutive of human society
2. Politics – practices and institutions through which order created, organising human co-existence in context of conflict provided by the political

Question 8

Simmons - why ideal theory needed

Answer 8

1. Without knowing long-term ideal goal, short-term ‘justice-improvements’ might make long-term goal less likely/impossible
2. Analogy – mountain climber

Question 9

Rawls’ response to claim that political theory is merely ‘applied moral philosophy’

Answer 9

1. political philosophy has distinctive features and problems
2. ‘justice as fairness’ not a universal moral theory (only applies to democratic societies)

Question 10

‘Detachment’ realist criticism of ideal theory

Answer 10

1. Political theory should ultimately guide political action

2. Abstract and fact-detached theory can’t do this

Question 11

Possible political dangers of utopian ideal theory?

Answer 11

1. Dissatisfaction w/slow progress towards utopian ideals may lead to tyranny/anti-democratic methods
2. Utopian ideals demotivating as we give up on striving for impossible ideal goals
3. Implementation of utopian ideals in real world of imperfect compliance may lead to disastrous results (e.g. communism)

Question 12

What do realists argue is the ‘fundamental’ political question

Answer 12

1. Securing order and protection

2. Primacy of legitimacy over justice

Question 13

Key dimensions to distinguish ideal/non-ideal theory?

Answer 13

1. Full vs partial compliance
   (i) All agents comply w/relevant demands of justice
   (ii) Natural + historical conditions favourable (e.g. society sufficiently economically developed to realise justice)
2. Utopian vs realistic theory (feasibility constraints)
   (i) Types of feasibility constraints we should take into account when designing normative principles
3. End-state vs transitional theory

Question 14

What assumptions does Rawls’ ideal theory of justice make?

Answer 14

1. Rawls assumes an efficient, stable, coordinated, and well-ordered, cooperative society (and perfect compliance)
2. “everyone is assumed to act justly and do his part in upholding just institutions”

Question 15

Key components of realism

Answer 15

V. diverse set of claims, but key components incl:

1. ANTI-UTOPIANISM
   (i) Theories that ignore realities of the world are naïve or recklessly idealist
2. DETACHMENT:
   (i) Political theory too abstract and infeasible, thereby failing to adequately inform actual political decision-making
3. MORAL EQUIVALENCE
   (i) Political morality is not identical with individual morality, and may contradict it, e.g. may have to secure democracy via force
4. DISPLACEMENT:
   (i) Try to avoid/displace politics, but disagreement and ‘the political’ = essential and unavoidable
   (ii) Normative theory aims to suppress/deny this inevitable conflict
   (iii) Politics becomes ‘applied ethics’ and is anti-political

Question 16

How does Mouffe say we can distinguish politics from war?

Answer 16

1. Problem - if politics = conflictual, what basis do we have to distinguish this from war?
2. Legitimate conflict must not destroy political association itself; must be common bond between conflicting parties so they don’t see opponents as enemies to be eradicated

Question 17

Estlund - claim in utophobia?

Answer 17

1. Human motivational capacities do not constitute a general constraint on political philosophy
2. The feasibility of a goal is compatible with the knowledge that the goal will not in fact be achieved

Question 18

Mouffe’s key realist claim?

Answer 18

Rejects idea of politics without conflict

Question 19

Honig’s key realist claim?

Answer 19

Rejects displacement of politics

Question 20

Contrast the different ‘solutions’ proposed in reaction to detachment and displacement realist criticisms

Answer 20

1. DETACHMENT - theory should re-direct to real-world political problems
2. DISPLACEMENT - theory should pull back entirely from territory rightly belonging to real politics

Question 21

How might political theory have negative consequences for democratic politics?

Answer 21

1. UTOPIAN IDEALS POSE POLITICAL DANGERS
   (i) Dissatisfaction with slow progress towards utopian ideals may lead to tyranny/anti-democratic methods
   (ii) Utopian ideals can be demotivating
2. FORMULATION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES NOT HELPFUL
   (i) Realists want context-dependent judgements because general principles don’t systematically apply to politics
3. IDEAL THEORY IS IDEOLOGICAL (masks + reinforces existing power relations)
   (i) Example (luck egalitarianism) – accused of obscuring pressing real-world injustices that lie in oppressive nature of social structures by focusing on choice/responsibility

Question 22

What does Geuss say political theory should be?

Answer 22

1. Action-focussed

2. Historically located

Question 23

Different types of possibility

Answer 23

1. Deep impossibility – violation of laws of nature
2. Technical impossibility – infeasible in particular circumstances, but possible in different ones
3. Human nature – grey area due to differing beliefs about which aspects of human nature fixed and which possible to change over time

Question 24

Advantage of assumption of full compliance, according to Stemplowska, in relation to poverty?

Answer 24

Guards against making demands too permissive towards those unwilling to comply w/reasonable limits on permissibility of their actions