I/O Psychology Flashcards
Job Analysis
way of collecting the info needed to describe job requirements (skills, knowledge, & attitudes)
Job Evaluation
determines job worth to set salaries;
establishes comparable worth
objective measures
direct;
quantitative measures of production & certain types of personnel data
subjective measures
rely on judgment of rater;
absolute or relative
relative measures
compare employees to each other;
includes: paired comparison, forced distribution
absolute measures
rate an employee without considering the performance of other employees
Includes: forced-choice rating scale, graphic rating scale, BARS, critical incident
paired comparison
rater compares each rater w/ every other rate in pairs
forced distribution
assign ratee to limited categories based on predefined normal distribution
forced-choice rating scale
there’s 2-4 alternatives & rater selects the alternative that best/least describes the ratee
graphic rating scale
rater uses a Likert-type scale to rate people using critical incidents as anchors
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
supervisors identify dimensions of job, critical incidents for each dimension, & rank each incident in each dimension;
con: requires raters to indicate the kinds of behaviors they would expect of ratees rather than the behaviors that they have actually observed
critical-incident technique
supervisor observes employee & composes a checklist of critical incidents then rater marks the items that apply to the rater;
*may not reflect what people typically do
ultimate criterion
accurate & complete measure of performance;
measure of performance that is theoretical & cannot actually be measured
actual criterion
the way that performance is actually measured
relevance
degree to which it measures ultimate criterion
deficiency
degree to which actual criterion doesn’t measure all aspects of the ultimate criterion
contamination
when actual criterion assesses factors other than the ones designed to measure
leniency/strictness bias
scoring everyone as either really high or really low
central tendency bias
using only middle range of scales
halo bias
when rating on one dimension affects other non-related dimensions;
can be + or -
Frame of Reference Training
provides raters with a common undressing of job & rate people;
provides training to increase rating accuracy
adverse impact
occurs when the use of an employment procedure results in a substantially different selection, placement, or promotion rate for members of different groups
80% rule
helps identify if adverse impact has occured;
hiring rate or majority X (.8)= lowest possible hiring rate for minority
differential validity
occurs when a predictor has different validity coefficients for different groups;
fix this by using a predictor that’s equally valid for both groups
unfairness
members of one group obtain lower scores than members of another group;
fix this by using different predictor cutoff scores
Incremental Validity
associated with selection ratio & base rate
selection ratio
job openings: applicants
*low selection ratio preferred
base rate
% of employees performing satisfactorily [0,1]
about .5 = greatest incremental validity
Taylor-Russel tables
used to estimate the 5 of new hires that will be successful;
uses incremental validity (low-moderate), selection ratio (low), and base rate (.5)
multiples regression
predictor scores are weighted & summed to yield an estimated criterion (average)
multiple cutoff
there’s a minimum score on each predictor the most be achieved to be selected
multiple hurdles
must achieve required score before being given the next predictor
Predictors used
general mental ability tests;
job knowledge tests;
personality tests;
interest inventories;
biodata;
interviews;
work samples;
ASMT centers
General Mental Ability Tests
best predictor of job performance
Personality Tests
OCEAN
*Conscientiousness is the best predictor of job performance
*most –> least stable (EAOCN)
Biographical Information
valid predictor;
lacks face v validity
work samples
required individual to perform tasks similar to those that will be performed;
Interviews
most commonly used;
low validity (can be improved by using structured interviews)
ASMT Centers
used to select, promote, & train managerial level of employees;
includes: in basket test & leaderless group discussion
in-basket test
requires individual to take action on memos, phone calls & reports
leaderless group discussion
assign a group of candidates a problem or issue to discuss
Training begins with ______
Needs Assessment
Needs Assessment
used to identify objectives, content, & format of training programs;
3 components: organizational analysis, job analysis, person analysis
organizational analysis
used to clarify organizational goals and determine if training is needed to meet those goals
person analysis
conducted to determine which employees would benefit from training
Principles of Effective Training
provide feedback (immediate & ongoing)
foster overloading
provide opp. for active practice
provide opp. for distributed practice
select appropriate learning focus
promote transfer of training
overloading
developing skill beyond mastery;
promotes automaticity
overtraining
excessive training –> negative consequences
on-the-job training
has obvious job relevance and maximizes transfer-of-training
ex. cross training & job rotation
cross training
teaching tasks that are performed in several jobs
job rotation
trainees perform several jobs over time
off-the-job training
provides opportunities to practice specific aspects of the job and can tolerate training errors and accidents
ex. behavioral modeling, vestibule training
behavioral modeling
involves having trainees observe a skilled worker perform the job and practice what they’ve observed
*based on Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory of Learning which involves guided mastery
guided mastery
- modeling
- role-playing
- self-directed
vestibule training
simulation of work environment
*useful when on-the-job training would be too expensive or dangerous
Kirkpatrick’s Model of Summative Evaluation
• reaction criteria: evaluate trainees’ satisfaction with the program
• learning criteria: assess how much trainees learned from the program
• behavioral criteria: evaluate transfer-of-training
• results criteria: provide information on the extent to which the program contributed to achievement of organizational goal
Rea Learned to Behave Respectfully
utility analysis
using equation to estimate the gain/loss
formative evaluation
conducted while the program is being developed & results are used to make modifications
summative evaluation
conducted after implementation to assess its outcomes
Super’s Theory of Career Development
proposes that the ideal situation is for a person to choose an occupation that is consistent with his or her self-concept
career development occurs over life-span; career maturity;
life space
self-concept
product of inherited aptitudes, physical makeup, & social learning experiences
*according to Super, job satisfaction depends on how job matches self-concept
lifespans stages (Super)
[0, 14y] growth
[14, 25] exploration
[25, 45] establishment
[45, 65] maintenance
[65+] disengagement
career maturity
person’s ability to cope with developmental tasks of current life stage
life space
various social roles a person adopts throughout life;
ex. student, spouse
*Life Career Rainboq
Holland’s Theory of Career Development
emphasize the importance of matching individual’s personality to characteristics of work environment;
RIASEC model;
RIASEC
Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, Conventional;
personality-match-environment: most accurate predictor If there was a high degree of differentiation
Roe’s Theory of Career Development
person’s occupational choice relates to basic needs & personality;
parent-cild interactions;
*based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
parent-child interactions
determine orientation “towards other people” or “NOT towards other people”
Tiedman & O’Hara’s Career Decision-Making Model
vocational identify development is ongoing & tied to ego identity development;
*based on Erikson’s
Two phases: anticipation, & implementation & adjustment phase
process can be simultaneous & reversible
anticipation phase
involves exploration, crystallization, choice;
individual attempts to achieve a balance between integration & differentiation
implementation & adjustment phase
involves induction, reformation, integration
*individual becomes established
Krumboltz Social Learning Theory
individuals need to be exposed to wide range of learning experiences in order to maximize career development;
*focus on promoting continual learning & self-development
Brousseau & Driver’s Theory of Career Development
emphasizes a person; career concept that vary in terms of frequency of job changes, direction of change, & type of change
career concept
a person’s career decisions & motives
linear career concept
career involves progressive upward movement
expert career concept
career involves lifelong commitment to specialty & developing skills
spinal career concept
career has periodic moves across occupational specialties
transitory career concept
ideal career is frequent job changes
Davis & Lofquist Theory of Work Adjustment
describes satisfaction, tenure as result of worker/work environment interaction
involves worker’s satisfaction & workers satisfactoriness
worker’s satisfaction
degree to which job corresponds to worker’s needs
& values
worker’s satisfactoriness
degree to which the worker’sskiuls correspond to the skill demands of job
problem-focused coping strategy
managing problem causing stress;
ex. developing new skills, moving to new location
*associated with greater re-employement
symptom-focused coping strategy
regulate one’s emotional response
ex. seeking financial assistance, getting emotional support
Downsizing
when organizations reduce cost by decreasing work force
survivor syndrome
involves depression, anxiety, guilt, decreased job satisfaction
Scientific Management
(Taylor);
a. analyze jobs into component parts & standardizing
b. scientifically selecting, training people for those jobs
c. fostering cooperation b/w supervisors & workers
d. having people assume responsibility
*money= main motivator
Hawthorne Effect
improvement in job performance resulting from psycho/social factors related to participation in research study
Theory X
managers believe employees dislike work & avoid it so they must be directed & controlled
Theory Y
employees are capable of self-control & self-direction
Performance
=f(ability + motivation + environment)
Need-Hierarchy Theory
Maslow;
motivation results from physiological, safety, social, esteem, & self-actualization in a hierarchy
ERG Theory
Alderfer;
Three needs: existence, relatedness, growth
*people can be motivated by more than one need at a time
Need Theory
three different needs;
Need for achievement: goal & task oriented
Need for power (socialized & personalized)
Need for affiliation: establishing relationships with others
Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg;
lower level needs lead to dissatisfaction if unfulfilled
Job context factors (pay, benefits, job security)
-Hygiene factors
higher level needs increase job satisfaction
job content factors (autonomy ahicrvement, recognition)
-motivator factors
dev. Job enrichment
job enrichment
combining several jobs into larger job so the person has increased responsibility, freedom, control
vertical job loading!!
job enlargement
involves increasing the number & variety of tasks
horizontal loading (BAD)
Goal Setting Theory
Locke & Latham;
employees are motivated to achieve goals they have consciously accepted & are committed to;
specific & moderate difficult goals have increased productivity
Equity Theory
Adams;
employees compare ratio of their own inputs: outputs to the ratio of others
similar ratios –> satisfaction
inequity –> altering input/output
Expectancy Theory
Porter & Lawler;
person will work hard if there is:
high expectancy (effort –> successful task performance)
high rewards (instrumentality)
& rewards are desirable (positive valence)
Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura;
emphasizes self-regulation & involves: goal setting, self observation, self evaluation, & self-reaction
Contingency Theory
Fieldler;
leadership effectiveness results from interaction b/w leaders style & situational favorableness
leadership style (contingency theory)
relationship oriented & task-oriented
relationship oriented leadership style
high LPC;
most effective in moderate situations
task-oriented leadership style
low LPC;
effective in low or high situations
situational favorableness
amount of influence/power a leader has & it’s determined by relationships, tasks, position power
Cognitive Resource Theory
impact of a leader’s intelligence/ experience on performance is moderated by stressfulness of situation
low stress: intelligence better predictor
high stress: experience better predictor
Path Goal Theory
House;
motivation, satisfaction, and performance are maximized when employees believe the leader is helping them achieve their own personal goals;
4 leadership styles: instrumental, supportive, participative, & achievement-oriented leaders
*leadership style can change depending the situation & the characteristics of the worker
*optimal leadership style depends on certain characteristic of the worker & the work situation
instrumental leaders
provides specific guidelines & establishes clear rules & procedures
supporting leaders
focus on establishing good relationships with workers and satisfying their needs
participative leaders
include subordinates in decision-making
achievement-oriented leaders
set challenging goals for
workers and encourage high levels of performance
Situational Leadership
Hersey & Blanchard;
4 leadership styles (telling leader, selling leader, participating, delegating) based on the worker’s job maturity
telling leaders
high task, low relationship orientation;
suited for employees who have low ability & low willingness
selling leader
high task & high relationship orientation
employees: low ability & high willingness
participating leaders
low task, high relationship orientation
employees: high ability, low willingness
delegating leaders
low task, low relationship orientation
employees: high ability & high willingness
Normative (decision-making) Model
Vroom, Yetton, & Jago’s decision tree
5 decision-making styles, AI, AII, CI, CII, G
*optimal style depends on characteristics of the situation
Transformational Leaders
recognize the need for change; communicate a vision for change; and then effectively accomplish change
use framing!
Transactional Leaders
focus on stability, maintaining status quo, & rely on wards & punishments to motivate subordinates
idiosyncrasy credits
credits a member of a group builds up that allows them to violate the norms
Group Cohesiveness
similar SES, interests, attitudes, personalities;
increases when members participate in setting goals & norms
associated with communication
Additive Group Tasks
individuals contribution are added together
compensatory group tasks
input of group member averaged out to create one product
disjunctive group tasks
members select solutions offered by one member
conjunctive group tasks
groups performance limited by worst-performing member
discretionary group tasks
group members decide how to add/combine contributions
social loafing
when one person exerts less effort in a group than they would have alone
social facilitation
presence of others increases ask performance when task is simple/well-learned
social inhibition
presence of others decreases performance on tasks that are complex/new
Stages of Group Development
- forming: establish rules
- storming: conflict arise
- norming: relationships grow
- performing: get the job done
- adjourning: group ends
Centralized Network
all communication passes through central person
decentralized network
info flows freely without a central person;
better for complex tasks;
higher satisfaction for all participants
Individual Decision-Making Model
Simon;
rational-economic model
bounded rationality model
rational-economic model
decision maker maximizes benefits by looking at all alternatives
bounded rationality model
individual considers solutions as they become available & select first option
groupthink
suspension of critical thinking that may occur when the group is highly cohesive and the group leader is very directive
group polarization
endency for groups to make decisions that are either riskier or more conservative than individual members would make alone
risky shift
tendency for groups to make riskier decisions than each member would have made alone
methods for resolving conflict
bargaining, mediation, arbitration
mediation
neutral 3rd party facilitates voluntary agreement b/w disputants by introducing new ideas for reaching an agreement
arbitration
more control than a mediator
binding arbitration
two sides agree in advance to accept settlements
voluntary arbitration
parties agree only to arbitration process
conventional arbitration
arbitrator free to choose any solution
final offer arbitration
arbitration must elect one offer made
Force Field analysis of planned change
Lewin;
driving forces= promote change;
restraining forces = resist
unfreezing, changing, freezing
System’s Model
Nadler;
effective organization change addresses: informal organization elements, employees, managers, & tasks
*change in one will change the others
Total Quality Management
focus on customer satisfaction, employee involvement;
*if it fails to live up to potential, its due to employees not being involved in decision making enough
quality of workalike programs
emphasis on employee empowerment
quality circles
small voluntary groups
self-managed work teams
autonomous work groups that consist of individuals who make decisions related to hiring, budgeting, and other organizational functions
Strategies to overcome resistance to change
Chin & Berine;
rational empirical strategy
normative re deductive strategy
power-coercive strategy
rational-empirical strategy
providing people with info that will benefit them (self-interest)
normative-redeductive strategy
based on peer pressure/ social norms
power-coercive strategy
using power to force employees to comply
organizational justice
3 types: distributive, procedural, interactional
*employees influenced by the PERCEPTION of justice
distributive justice
perceptions about the fairness of decision outcomes
procedural justice
perceptions about the fairness of the procedures & policies used to make decisions
interactional justice
perceptions about how employers and managers carry out the decisions they’ve made
person-organization fit
extent to which individuals values match organizational culture
*achieved through selection & socialization
Yerkes-Dodson Law
performance depends on level of aorusal
moderate levels of arousal –> highest levels of performance & learning
higher optimal level for easy tasks
Demand-control (job strain) model
Karasek;
based on job demand & job control;
high job demand & low job control —> dissatisfaction
Job burnout
accumulated stress due to overwork
work-family conflict
when roles are incompatible because they interfere with each other
compressed workweek
less day, more hours per day;
associated with higher employee attitudes, rating, job satisfaction, satisfaction with schedule
Zeigamik Effect
tendency to remember unfinished tasks better than finished tasks
process consultation
focus on behaviors;
designed to assist member by increasing ability to understand their interactions with others & how processes interfere with achieving goals
behavior change precedes attitude change
*communication, conflict-resolution, decision-making
Group Based program evaluation
extent to which program achieves objectives
process based approach
evaluate effectiveness of system that guide program’s success
outcomes based approach
evaluate the benefits received by client participation in program
self-assessment
assessment used when the objective is organizational development;
implementation of findings is more successful when stakeholders of the organization are included in the discovery process
Americans with Disabilities Act
protects the rights of people with physical and mental disabilities;
permits only post-offer, pre-employment medical exams
*drug testing is not prohibited at any time during pre-employment or employment
hygiene factors
contribute to dissatisfaction when they are inadequate
ex. job security, pay and benefits, relationships with co-workers, working conditions, and company policies
motivator factors
do not contribute to dissatisfaction but contribute to satisfaction and motivation when they’re adequate
ex. nature of the work itself and opportunities for responsibility, achievement, and promotion
Incentive/ Reward Theory
Making jobs interesting, attractive, and satisfying
Gender & Leadership
Although male and female leaders differ in terms of decision-making style (W= democratic, M= autocratic.directive), their leadership styles do not differ
job performance & job satisfaction
positive correlation;
coefficients are low
Informal Organizational elements
implicit beliefs, values, & behaviors
part of Nadler’s systems model of planned change
formal organizational elements
includes organization’s structures, processes, & methods;
Nadler’s system’s model of planned change
Herbert Simon
known for individual decision-making model & Artificial Intelligence
women & working
combining work & family roles is most associated with enhanced self-esteem
structured interviews
predictive validity as predictors of performance is increased when the interview is used in combination with a measure of general mental ability
brainstorm
individual> group
work shift research
night shift associated with the most detrimental impact on health;
night shift & swing shift may have about the same negative effects on the social life of workers
Ohio State University Leadership Studies
leaders can be desired in 2 terms:
-initiating structure: task-oriented
-consideration: person-oriented
*dimensions are independent
*high levels of both dimension = best outcomes
Intelligence & Leadership
low correlations
4-step Organization ASMT
- determine the purpose of evaluation, time, budget
- create questions about the organization’s performance, environment, capacity, motivation
- collection of qualitative & quantitative data
- analyze findings
3 Approaches to Program Evaluation
process-based, outcomes-based, goals-based
career concept (Brousseau & Driver)
a person’s career decisions & motives
Job satisfaction & stability
relatively stable over time and across jobs
Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions
power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, masculinity, & long-term orientation
heron-organization fit
match between the employee’s values, needs, preferences, etc. and the culture of the organization
*achieved through selection & socialization
______ function as cognitive defense mechanism
assumptions underlying the organizations culture
Position Analysis Questionnaire
used to obtain information about the attribute needed to perform a job
*obtain the information needed to complete a job analysis
