Human Structure and Function Flashcards
(231 cards)
0
Q
What are the 11 systems of the human body?
A
- Integumentary system
- Skeletal system
- Muscular system
- Nervous system
- Endocrine system
- Cardiovascular system
- Lymphatic system
- Respiratory system
- Digestive system
- Urinary system
- Reproductive system
1
Q
What are the 6 levels of structural organisation in the human body?
A
- Chemical Level
- Cellular Level
- Tissue Level
- Organ Level
- System Level
- Organismal Level
2
Q
What is the respiratory system composed of?
A
Lungs, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, and the alveoli
3
Q
How does the respiratory system contribute to homeostasis?
A
- Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood
- Transfers carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air
- Helps regulate acid/base balance of body fluids
4
Q
What is the skeletal system composed of?
A
Bones and joints of the body, and their associated cartilages
5
Q
How does the skeletal system help maintain homeostasis?
A
- Supports and protects the body
- Provides surface area for muscle attachment
- Aids body movement
- Houses cells that produce blood cells
- Stores minerals and lipids
6
Q
What is the muscular system composed of?
A
Skeletal muscle tissue — muscle usually attached to bones
Other muscle tissues include smooth and cardiac
7
Q
How does the muscular system contribute to homeostasis?
A
- Participates in body movements
- Maintains posture
- Produces heat
8
Q
What is the integumentary system composed of?
A
Skin and associated structures (hair, nails, sweat and oil glands)
9
Q
How does the integumentary system contribute to homeostasis?
A
- Protects the body
- Helps regulate body temperature
- Eliminates some waste
- Helps make vitamin D
- Detects sensation (touch, cold, hot)
10
Q
What is the nervous system composed of?
A
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs (eyes, ears)
11
Q
What is the function of the nervous system?
A
- Generates action potentials to regulate body activities
- Detects changes in body’s internal and external environments
- Interprets changes and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions
12
Q
What is the endocrine system composed of?
A
- Hormone producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes)
- Hormone producing cells in several other organs
13
Q
What is the function of the endocrine system?
A
Regulates body activities by releasing hormones into the blood stream
14
Q
What is the lymphatic system composed of?
A
Lymphatic fluid and vessels, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils
Cells that carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others)
15
Q
What is the function if the lymphatic system?
A
- Returns proteins and fluid to the blood
- Carries lipids from the gastrointestinal tract
- Contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against disease-causing microbes
16
Q
What are the components of the digestive system?
A
Mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, anus
Salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas
17
Q
What is the function of the digestive system?
A
- Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food
- Absorbs nutrients
- Eliminates solid waste
18
Q
What are the components of the urinary system?
A
Kidney, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
19
Q
What is the function of the urinary system?
A
- Produces, stores and eliminates urine
- Eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood
- Helps maintain acid/base balance of body fluids
- Maintains body’s mineral balance
- Helps regulate production of red blood cells
20
Q
What are the components of the reproductive system in a female?
A
Ovaries (gonads), uterine tubes, uterus, vagina and mammary glands
21
Q
What are the components of the reproductive system in a male?
A
Testes (gonads), epididymides, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, and penis
22
Q
What is the function of the reproductive system?
A
- Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism
- Gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes
- Associated organs transport and store gametes
- Mammary glands produce milk
23
Q
What do the gonads produce?
A
Gametes (sex cells)
Ova or sperm
24
What does the scrotum contain?
The testes
25
Why are the testes outside of the body?
To provide a lower temperature, which is required for sperm production
26
What is each testis covered externally by?
A tunica albuginea
27
What does each lobule of the testis contain?
Sperm-producing seminiferous tubules
Interstitial cells that produce androgens
28
What is the erectile tissue of the penis made of?
Corpus spongiosum and corpora cavernosa
29
The male perineum is the region encompassed by...?
The pubic symphysis, ischial tuberosities and the coccyx
30
The ___________ hugs the external surface of the testis and serves as a site for _______ ___________ and ___________
Epididymis
Sperm maturation
Storage
31
The _________ ______________, extending from the epididymis to the ______________ duct, propels sperm into the urethra by ___________ during ejaculation
Ductus deferens
Ejaculatory
Peristalsis
32
The accessory glands produce the bulk of the __________, which contains fructose from the _____________ __________, activating fluid from the ___________ gland, and mucus from the ______________ glands
Semen
Seminical vesicles
Prostate
Bulbourethral
33
What are the structures that draw an ovulated oocyte into the female duct system?
Cilia and fimbriae
34
What is the usual site for embryo implantation?
The uterus
35
What is the male homologue of the female clitoris?
The penis
36
What are secondary sex characteristics a result of?
The increasing amount of sex hormones during puberty
37
What produces the male sex hormones?
The interstitial cells
38
What will occur as a result of nondescent of the testes?
Viable sperm will not be produced
| Due to increased temperature
39
What is the normal diploid number of human chromosomes?
46
40
Which hormones directly regulate the ovarian cycle?
FSH and LH
41
Which chemicals in males inhibit the pituitary-testicular axis?
Inhibin and testosterone
42
Which hormone makes cervical mucus viscous?
Progesterone
43
What potentiates the activity of testosterone on spermatogenic cells
Androgen-binding protein
44
What exerts feedback inhibition on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary in females?
Oestrogens, progesterone and inhibin
45
What hormone stimulates the secretion of testosterone?
LH
46
The menstrual cycle can be divided into three continuous phases
Starting from the first day of the cycle, what is their consecutive order?
Menstrual, proliferative, secretory
47
Spermatozoa are to seminiferous tubules as oocytes are to...?
Ovarian follicles
48
The corpus luteum is formed at the site of the...?
Ovulation
49
The sex of a child is determined by...?
The sex chromosome contained in the sperm
50
A drug that "reminds the pituitary" to produce gonadotropins might be useful as a ____________
Fertility drug
51
Describe the function of the scrotum in protecting the testes from temperature fluctuations
The location of the scrotum and the contraction of its muscle fibres regulate the temperature of the testes
In response to cold temperatures, the cremaster and dartos muscles contract, moving the testes closer to the body, where they can absorb heat.
Contraction of the dartos muscle causes the scrotum to become tight, which reduces heat loss.
Exposure to warmth reverses these actions
52
What are the groups of reproductive organs in males, and what are the functions of each group?
The gonads (testes) produce gametes (sperm) and hormones
The ducts transport, store and receive gametes
The accessory glands secrete materials that support the gametes
The penis assists in the delivery and joining of gametes
53
Which muscles help regulate the temperature of the testes?
The cremaster and dartos muscles
54
What tissue layers cover and protect the testes?
The tunica vaginalis and tunica albuginea are tissue layers that cover and protect the testes
55
Which cells secrete testosterone?
The Leydig (interstitial) cells of the testes secrete testosterone
56
What is the outcome of meiosis I?
The number of chromosomes in each cell is halved
57
What are the functions of each part of the sperm cell?
The sperm head contains the nucleus, with 23 highly condensed chromosomes and an acrosome that contains enzymes for penetration of a secondary oocyte
The neck of the sperm contains centrioles that produce microtubules for the rest of the tail
The midpiece contains mitochondria for ATP production for locomotion and metabolism
The end pieces of the tail provide motility
58
Which cells secrete inhibin?
Serotoli cells secrete inhibin
59
Which hormones inhibit secretion of FSH and LH by the anterior pituitary?
Testosterone inhibits secretion of LH, and inhibin inhibits secretion of FSH
60
What accessory gland contributes the majority of seminal fluid?
The seminal vesicles
61
Which tissue masses from the erectile tissue of the penis, and why do they become rigid during sexual arousal?
Two corpus cavernosa penis and one corpus spongiosum penis contain blood filled sinuses that fill with blood that cannot flow out of the penis as quickly as it flows in
The trapped blood engorges and stiffens the tissue, producing an erection
The corpus spongiosum penis keeps the spongy urethra open so that ejaculation can occur
62
To which structures do the mesovarium, ovarian ligament and suspensory ligament anchor the ovary?
The mesovarium anchors the ovary to the broad ligament of the uterus and the uterine tube
The ovarian ligament anchors the ovary to the uterus
The suspensory ligament anchors the ovary to the pelvic wall
63
Which structures in males are homologous to the ovary, the clitoris, the paraurethral glands and the greater vestibular glands?
Ovaries — Testes
Clitoris — Glans penis
Paraurethral glands — Prostate
Greater vestibular glands — bulbourethral glands
64
What structures in the ovary contain endocrine tissue, and what hormones to the secrete?
Ovarian follicles secrete oestrogen
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, oestrogen, relaxin and inhibin
65
What happens to most ovarian follicles?
Most ovarian follicles undergo atresia (degeneration)
66
How does the age of a primary oocyte in females compare with the age of a primary spermatocyte in males?
Primary oocytes are present in the ovary at birth, so they are as old as the woman
Primary spermatocytes are continually being formed from stem cells (spermatogonia), and thus are only a few days old
67
Where does fertilisation usually occur?
Fertilisation most often occurs in the ampulla of the uterine tubes
68
What type of cells line the uterine tubes?
Ciliated columnar epithelial cells and nonciliated (peg) cells with microvilli line the uterine tubes
69
What structural features of the endometrium and myometrium contribute to their functions?
The endometrium is a highly vascularised, secretory epithelium that provides the oxygen and nutrients needed to sustain a fertilised egg
The myometrium is a thick smooth muscle layer that supports the uterine wall during pregnancy and contracts to expel the fetus at birth
70
What is the structural significance of the stratum basalis of the endometrium?
The stratum basalis of the endometrium provide cells to replace those that are shed (the stratum functionalis) during each menstruation
71
What surfaces are anterior to the vaginal opening?
The mons pubis, clitoris, prepuce, and external urethral orifice.
72
What surfaces are lateral to the vaginal opening?
The labia minors and labia majora
73
Why is the anterior potion of the female peritoneum called the urogenital triangle?
Because it's borders form a triangle that encloses the urethral (uro-) and vaginal (-genital) orifices
74
What hormones regulate the synthesis of milk?
Prolactin, oestrogen and progesterone regulate the synthesis of milk
Oxytocin regulates the ejection of milk
75
Of the several oestrogens, which one exerts the major effect?
The principle oestrogen is ß-estradiol
76
Which hormone is responsible for the proliferative phase of endometrial growth?
Oestrogens
77
Which hormone is responsible for ovulation?
LH
78
Which hormone is responsible for growth of the corpus luteum?
LH
79
Which hormone is responsible for the mid cycle surge of LH?
Oestrogens
80
What is the effect of rising but still moderate levels of oestrogens on the secretion of GnRH, LH and FSH?
Negative feedback inhibition of the secretion of GnRH, LH and FSH
81
When declining levels oestrogens and progesterone stimulate secretion of GnRH, is this a positive or negative feedback effect? Why?
This is negative feedback, because the response is opposite to the stimulus.
A reduced amount of negative feedback due to declining levels oestrogens and progesterone stimulates the release of GnRH, which in turn increases the production and release of FSH and LH, ultimately stimulating the secretion of oestrogens
82
Which gene is responsible for the development of the gonads into testes?
The SRY gene on the Y chromosome is responsible for the development of gonads into testes
83
Which hormone is responsible for the differentiation of the external genitals?
The presence of dihydrotestosterone (DHT) stimulates differentiation of the external genitals in males
It's absence allows differentiation of the external genitals in females
84
What is the function of the ovaries?
The ovaries produce secondary oocytes and hormones, including progesterone and oestrogens (female sex hormones), inhibin, and relaxin
85
What is the function of the oviducts?
The oviducts transport a secondary oocyte to the uterus and normally are the sites where fertilisation occurs
86
What is the function of the uterus?
The uterus is the site of implantation of a fertilised ovum, development of the foetus during pregnancy, and labour
87
What is the function of the vagina?
The vagina receives the penis during sexual intercourse. And is a passageway for childbirth
88
What is the function of the mammary glands?
The mammary glands synthesise, secrete and eject milk for nourishment of the newborn
89
What is the function testes?
The testes produce sperm and the male sex hormone testosterone
90
What is the function of the system of ducts in the male reproductive system?
The ducts transport, store, and assist in maturation of sperm
91
What is the function of the male accessory sex glands?
The accessory glands secrete most of the liquid portion of semen
92
What is the function of the penis?
The penis contains the urethra, which is a common passageway for ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine
93
What are some key differences in function among the four tissue types?
Epithelial tissues cover the body, line various structures, and form glands
Connective tissues protect, support, bind organs together, store energy, and help provide immunity
Muscular tissue contracts and generates force and heat
Nervous tissue detects changes in the environment and generates nerve impulses that activate muscular contraction and glandular secretion
94
Which type of cell junction functions in communication between adjacent cells?
Gap junctions allow cellular communication via passage of electrical and chemical signals between adjacent cells
95
What relationship between epithelial tissues and connective tissues is important for the survival and function of epithelial tissues?
Since epithelial tissues are avascular, they depend on blood vessels in connective tissues for oxygen, nutrients, and waste disposal
96
What are the functions of the basement membrane?
The basement membrane provides physical support for the epithelium and plays a part in growth and wound healing, restriction of molecule movement between tissues, and blood filtration in the kidneys
97
Which cell shape is best adapted for the rapid movement of substances from one cell to another?
Because the cells are so thin, substances move most rapidly through squamous cells
98
How do simple multicellular exocrine glands differ from compound ones?
Simple multicellular exocrine glands have a non branched duct; compound multicellular exocrine glands have a branched duct
99
What class of glands are sebaceous (oil) glands?
Sebaceous glands are Holocene glands
100
What class of glands are salivary glands?
Salivary glands are merocrine glands
101
What is the function of fibroblasts?
Fibroblasts secrete the fibres and ground substances of the extracellular matrix
102
What is an epithelial membrane?
An epithelial membrane is a membrane that consists of an epithelial layer and an underlying layer of connective tissue
103
What are the four types of tissue?
Epithelial, muscular, connective and nervous
104
What two criteria is epithelial tissue classified by?
Cell shape and the arrangement of cells in layers
105
Which muscular tissue can be voluntary controlled?
Skeletal muscle
106
Why does damaged cartilage heal so slowly?
Cartilage is avascular, so materials needed for repair must diffuse from surrounding tissue
107
Which of the following is a subdiscipline of anatomy?
a) Biochemistry
b) Endocrinology
c) Psychology
d) Embryology
e) Exercise Physiology
Embryology
108
Histology could be defined as a study of
a) cells.
b) tissues.
c) chemistry of cells.
d) gross structures of the body
e) function
Tissues
109
The term smooth refers to what type of tissue?
a) Connective
b) Glandular
c) Epithelial
d) Muscle
e) Nervous
Muscle
110
Which of the following best describes the relationship between the right shoulder and the navel?
a) The right shoulder is inferior and medial to the navel.
b) The right shoulder is inferior and lateral to the navel.
c) The right shoulder is superior and medial to the navel.
d) The right shoulder is superior and lateral to the navel.
e) The right shoulder is superior and proximal to the navel.
The right shoulder is superior and lateral to the navel
111
Which two systems are responsible for the control of all of the other body systems?
a) Respiratory and cardiovascular
b) Skeletal and muscular
c) Nervous and endocrine
d) Immune and Reproductive
e) Integumentary and Skeletal
Nervous and endocrine
112
The cranial cavity is
a) where the brain is located.
b) lined by the meninges.
c) part of the ventral body cavity.
d) A and B only are correct.
e) A, B, and C are all correct.
A and B only are correct
113
Microvilli and goblet cells are characteristic of
a) areolar connective tissue.
b) simple squamous epithelium.
c) simple columnar epithelium.
d) skeletal muscle tissue.
e) All of these could have microvilli and goblet cells.
Simple columnar epithelium
114
Cilia are commonly seen on cells in tissues that
a) line the blood vessels.
b) line the respiratory tract.
c) form the skin.
d) move from one place to another.
e) All of these are correct.
Line the respiratory tract
115
The surface area for diffusion across the membranes of cells in simple columnar epithelium is increased by the presence of
a) goblet cells.
b) microvilli.
c) cilia.
d) desmosomes.
e) All of the above increase the surface area.
Microvilli
116
A change in membrane potential from +30mV to -70mV is an example of...?
a) Depolarisation
b) Hyperpolarisation
c) Polarisation
d) Repolarisation
e) Zero polarisation
Repolarisation
117
11. A threshold potential is
a) the potential achieved when two opposing forces acting upon an ion (concentration and electrical gradients) achieve a state of equilibrium
b) the peak potential achieved during an action potential
c) the point at which ther si an explosive increase in Na+ permeability
d) the potential at which K+ permeability increases
e) always a positive potential
The point at which ther si an explosive increase in Na+ permeability
118
The nodes of Ranvier are
a) Action potential recordings
b) Breaks in the myelin covering
c) Lipid paths
d) Spaces between neurones
e) Specialised Cells
Breaks in the myelin covering
119
The nucleus of a neuron is housed in the
a) axon
b) axon hillock
c) cell body
d) collaterals
e) dendrites
Cell body
120
Which of the following is not part of the peripheral nervous system?
a) motor neurones
b) sympathetic nervous system
c) spinal cord
d) afferent division
e) autonomic nervous system
Spinal cord
121
Afferent neurones
a) transmit information to effector organs
b) have motor function
c) transmit messages to the spinal cord
d) connect different parts of the brain
e) control involuntary body functions
Transmit messages to the spinal cord
122
Which characteristic is relevant to the endocrine system rather than the nervous system?
a) releases chemicals into synaptic clefts
b) chemical signals operate at very short distances
c) speed of response is very rapid
d) signalling may affect a wide range of cells
e) anatomically ‘wired’ system
Signalling may affect a wide range of cells
123
Which statement regarding endocrine glands is INCORRECT?
a) They produce hormones
b) They secrete their products into the blood
c) They are comprised of epithelial tissue
d) They are all controlled by the nervous system
e) They are ductless
They are all controlled by the nervous system
124
Which structure in the human body secretes insulin and glucagon?
a) Posterior pituitary
b) Liver
c) Pancreas
d) Stomach
e) Adrenal medulla
Pancreas
125
Sperm are stored for maturation in the
a) anterior pituitary
b) ductus deferens
c) epididymis
d) Leydig cells
e) urethra
Epididymis
126
Testosterone:
a) is responsible for the male secondary sexual characteristics
b) stimulates spermatogenesis
c) acts in negative feedback fashion on the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus
d) secretion is stimulated by LH
e) all of the above
All of the above
127
Which of the following help move the oocyte into and through the uterine tube?
a) peristalsis
b) cilia
c) flagella
d) fimbriae
e) All of the above except flagella.
All of the above except flagella
128
At day 4 after fertilization, the solid ball of cells that has formed is called the
a) zygote.
b) blastocyst.
c) gastrula.
d) morula.
e) embryo.
Morula
129
Chondroblasts
a) are mature cartilage cells located in spaces called lacunae.
b) are within the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix.
c) are located deep to the perichondrium divide and secrete new matrix on the external surface of the cartilage.
d) Both B and C are correct.
e) None are correct
Both B and C are correct
130
The function of the epiphyseal plate is to
a) allow more flexibility in a long bone.
b) allow a means by which the bone can increase in diameter.
c) allow a means by which the bone can increase in length.
d) provide nourishment to isolated osteocytes.
e) Both B and C are correct.
Allow a means by which the bone can increase in length
131
Osteons are typical of the structure of
a) compact bone.
b) epiphyseal plates.
c) spongy bone.
d) the endosteum.
e) All of these contain osteons.
Compact bone
132
Collagen is secreted by
a) mesenchyme cells.
b) osteoblasts.
c) osteoclasts.
d) hydroxyapatites.
e) Both B and C are correct.
Osteoblasts
133
Which of the following is TRUE regarding the skeletal system?
a) It provides support and protection.
b) It stores minerals.
c) It assists in body movements.
d) It houses cells that give rise to blood cells.
e) All of the above are true.
All of the above are true
134
Bone grows in diameter by
a) appositional growth on the periosteal side of the bone.
b) interstitial growth.
c) activity at the epiphyseal plate.
d) activity of the hemopoietic tissue.
e) A, B, and C are all correct.
Appositional growth on the periosteal side of the bone
135
The evidence for bipedality in early hominins includes
a) the position of the foramen magnum
b) fossilized footprints
c) the postcranial skeleton
d) all of the above
e) none of the above
All of the above
136
Bipedalism may have been favoured by natural selection because
a) it is an efficient way of moving on the ground.
b) it keeps the hands free for carrying things.
c) an erect posture helps maintain a cooler body temperature.
d) all of the above
e) none of the above
All of the above
137
What are the 3 sections of the brain?
Forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain
138
What is the forebrain associated with?
Chemical senses – taste and smell
139
What is the midbrain associated with?
Vision
140
What is the hindbrain associated with?
Vibration (hearing)
141
How is the spinal cord separated?
With a dorsal and ventral side
142
What do the dorsal roots into the spinal cord do?
They accept incoming sensory information
143
What do the ventral roots into the spinal cord do?
They send out motor commands to the body
144
What is the hindbrain made up of?
The medulla oblongata, the cerebellum and the fourth ventricle
145
What does the medulla oblongata do?
It controls the autonomic homeostatic system, so it controls changes in the body, adjusting the conditions to keep it constant
Any damage to the medulla oblongata is fatal
146
What does the cerebellum do?
It integrates information about the body's position with motor commands
147
What does the Pons do?
It is the part of the brain stem that forms a "bridge" between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain, anterior to the cerebellum
148
What is the central aqueduct and what are the structures in it?
In the midbrain
The roof is called the tectum, and separates into the superior and inferior colliculi
149
Define membrane
A thin, flexible sheet of tissue that cover or line a part of the body
150
Which tissue does all other connective tissues eventually arise?
Mesenchyme
151
What connective tissue has a clear liquid matrix, and flows in lymphatic vessels?
Lymph
152
What connective tissue consists of several kinds of cell, containing all three fiber types randomly arranged, and is found in the subcutaneous layer deep to the skin?
Areolar connective tissue
153
What loose connective tissue is specialise for triglyceride storage?
Adipose connective tissue
154
Which tissue contains reticular fibres, reticular cells and forms the stromatolites of certain organs, such as the spleen?
Reticular connective tissue
155
Which tissue has irregularly arranged collagen fibres found in the dermis of the skin?
Dense irregular connective tissue
156
Which tissue is found in the lungs, that is strong and can recoil back to its original shape after being stretched?
Elastic connective tissue
157
What tissue afford flexibility at the joints, and reduces joint friction?
Hyaline cartilage
158
What tissue provides strength and rigidity, and is the strongest of the three types of cartilage?
Fibrocartilage
159
What tissue is composed of bundles of collagen arranged in parallel patterns, and composes tendons and ligaments?
Dense regular connective tissue
160
What tissue contains a network of elastic fibres, providing strength, elasticity, and maintenance of shape, and is located in the external ear?
Elastic cartilage
161
What connective tissue with formed elements is suspended in a liquid matrix called plasma?
Blood
162
What is a mucous membrane?
A membrane that lines cavities that open to the exterior, such as the gastrointestinal tract
163
What is a serous menpmbrane!
A membrane that lines closed cavities, and cover organs in the cavities
These organs consist of parietal and visceral layer
164
What is the cutaneous membrane?
The skin.
It covers the entire body and consists of a superficial epidermis (epithelium) and deep dermis (connective tissue)
165
What is a sinovial membrane
A membrane that lines joint cavities and consists of areola connective-tissue
166
What do muscular tissues consist of?
Muscle fibres or myocytes that are specialised for contraction
167
What is the function of muscular tissue?
Muscular tissue provides motion, maintenance of posture, heat production, and protection.
168
Where is skeletal muscle tissue attached?
Skeletal muscle tissue attaches to the bones
169
Where is smooth muscle tissue found?
Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of hollow internal structures (Blood vessels and viscera)
170
What is the nervous system composed of?
The nervous system is composed of neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia (protective and supporting cells)
171
How do neurons respond to stimuli?
Neurons respond by converting stimuli into electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve impulses), and conducting nerve impulses to other cells
172
What do most neurons consist of?
Most neurons consist of a cell body and two types of processes, dendrites and axons
173
What is electrical excitability?
Electrical excitability is the ability to respond to certain signals by producing electrical signals such as action potentials
174
Name two types of excitable cells
Because neurons and muscle fibres exhibit electrical excitability, they are considered excitable cells
175
Define tissue repair
Tissue repair is the replacement of worn out, damaged, or dead cells by healthy ones
176
How do stem cells assist in tissue repair?
Stem cells may divide to replace lost or damaged cells
177
What is involved in tissue repair?
Is the injury superficial, tissue repair involves parenchymal regeneration
If damage is extensive, granulation tissue is involved
178
What is vital to tissue repair?
Good nutrition and blood circulation are vital to tissue repair
179
Define a tissue
A tissue is a group of cells, usually with similar embryological origin, that is specialised for a particular function
180
What is a cell junction?
Cell junctions are points of contact between adjacent plasma membranes
181
What is the function of a tight junction?
Tight junctions for fluid tight seals between cells
182
What is the function of adherens junctions, desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes?
They anchor themselves to one another or to the basement membrane
183
What is the function of a gap junction?
Gap junctions permit electrical and chemical signals to pass between cells
184
Compare epithelial and connective tissues
Epithelial tissues have many cells tightly packed together and are avascular
Connective tissues have relatively few cells with lots of extra cellular material
185
What are the subtypes of epithelial tissues?
The subtypes of epithelial tissues include covering and lining epithelia and glandular epithelia
186
Where is simple squamous epithelium found in the body?
It is found in parts of the body where filtration or diffusion is a priority process.
One type, called endothelium, lines the heart and blood vessels.
Another type, called mesothelium, form the serous membranes the line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and cover organs within them
187
Where is simple cuboidal epithelium found?
Simple cuboid or epithelium consists of a single layer of cube shaped cells that function in secretion and absorption.
It is found covering the ovaries, in the kidneys and eyes, and lining some of the glandular ducts
188
Where is nonciliated simple columnar epithelium found?
Non-ciliated simple columnar epithelium is a single layer of non-ciliated rectangular cells, which lines most of the gastrointestinal tract and contain specialised cells that perform absorption and secrete mucus.
189
Where is ciliated simple columnar epithelium found?
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium, which consists of a single layer of ciliated rectangular cells, is found in a few portions of the upper respiratory tract, where it moves foreign particles trapped in mucus out of the respiratory tract.
190
What is the difference between ciliated and non-ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
The ciliated variety contains goblet cells and lines most of the upper respiratory tract. The ciliated variety moves mucus in the respiratory tract.
The nonciliated variety have no goblet cells and lines ducts of many glands, epididymis, and part of the male urethra. The non-ciliated variety of functions in absorption and protection
191
What does transitional epithelium consist of?
Transitional epithelium consists of several layers of cells whose appearance varies with the degree stretching
It lines the urinary bladder
192
List two physiological responses that will counteract a fall in body temperature
Shivering
Vasoconstriction
193
Identify two physiological responses that occur in response to a rise in body temperature
Sweating
Vasodilation
194
The fluid part of blood is known as _______
Plasma
195
The blood volume in adults is approximately __________
5-6 litres
196
Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart are __________
Arteries
197
The normal pulse rate (at rest) is around _________ beats per minute
65-75
198
What is the function of the lymph nodes?
Filtering of microorganisms and other material from lymph
199
Name the two parts of the central nervous system
Brain and spinal cord
200
The grey matter of the nervous system is formed by _________
Cell bodies
201
Groups of cell bodies in the central nervous are usually described as ________
Nuclei
202
White matter of the nervous system is formed by _________
Axons
203
Nerve fibres that carry impulses from the central nervous system are described as _________
Efferent
204
Groups of cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system are described as __________
Ganglia
205
A neurone receives incoming impulses at the _________
Dendrites
206
Outline the function of the blood-brain barrier
Protects the brain from potentially toxic substances and chemical variations in the blood
207
What is access to the epidural space used for in clinical medicine?
Insertion of dyes for diagnostic purposes, or for administration of drugs
208
Name the fluid found in the ventricles of the brain
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
209
CSF is secreted by choroid plexuses situated in _________
The ventricles
210
CSF circulation is assisted by __________ ?
Breathing, pulsation of blood vessels, and changes in position
211
CSF returns to the blood _________
Through the arachnoid villi when CSF pressure is greater that venous pressure
212
The approximate volume of CSF in adults is _________
150ml
213
Normal constituents of CSF include:
Water, glucose, albumin, leukocytes
214
Normal CSF pressure when lying down is around _________
10cm H2O
215
Outline the functions of CSF
Supports the brain in the cranial cavity
Maintains uniform pressure around the brain and spinal cord
Protects the brain and spinal cord by acting as a shock absorber between the brain and cranial bones
Keeps the brain and spinal cord moist
May allow exchange of substances between CSF and nerve cells
216
Define articulating surface
The part of the bone that enters into the formation of a joint
217
Define articulation
A joint between two or more bones
218
What is a bony sinus?
A hollow cavity within a bone
219
Define border
A ridge of bone separating two surfaces
220
What is a condyle?
A smooth rounded projection of bone that forms part of a joint
221
What is a facet?
A small, generally rather flat, articulating surface
222
What is a fissure or cleft?
A narrow slit
223
What is a foramen? (Plural: foramina)
A hole in a structure
224
What is a fossa? (Plural: fossae)
A hollow or depression
225
Define meatus
A tube-shaped cavity within a bone
226
What is a septum?
A partition separating two cavities
227
Define spine, spinous process, or crest
A sharp ridge of bone
228
What is a suture?
An immovable joint
| E.g. Between the bones of the skull
229
What is a styloid process?
A sharp, downward projection of bone that gives attatchment to muscles and ligaments
230
Define trochanter, tuberosity, or tubercle
Roughened bony projections, usually for attachment of muscles of ligaments
The different names are used according to the size of the projection
Trochanters are the largest and tubercles, the smallest
