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Human Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Where do you gain and lose water?

A

water ingested- food and water, water formed in the metabolism
l- urine, feces excretion, evaporation, sweat and expired air

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2
Q

In water balance what is the only water control that is under homeostasis control?

A

Urinary secretion

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3
Q

What part of the renal filters plasma?

A

The glomerulus

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4
Q

What happens in the proximal convoluted tubule?

A

Ions, small organic molecules are reabsorbed
Secretion of H+ (acid-base balance)
Active transport; facilitated diffusion
Relatively little control over what is reabsorbed

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5
Q

What opposes the capillary hydrostatic blood pressure?

A

plasma protein oncotic pressure

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6
Q

what is the hoop of henle important for?

A

concentration of urine

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7
Q

The length of the henle hoop corrolates to what?

A

concentration of urine

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8
Q

What does the distal convoluted tubule do?

A

reabsorption of Na, cl and ca
secretion of H, K

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9
Q

what hormones control the activity of the distal convoluted tubule?

A

Aldosterone
Atrial natriuretic hormone
ADH (in most distal parts)
Parathyroid hormone

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10
Q

What are the collecting ducts responsible for?

A

Water reabsorption, under the influence of ADH
ADH  membrane channels for water reabsorption

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11
Q

What are 3 compounds responsible for the regulation of water?

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH)
also: called ANF, ANP

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12
Q

Where is ADH produced?

A

hypothalamus, released from posterior pituitary gland

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13
Q

What increases ADH secretion?

A

ECF volume (low pressure receptors in atria and great veins)
ECF osmolarity (Osmoreceptors in hypothalamus)
ADH also causes constriction of blood vessels (vaso-press-in)

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14
Q

What control are electrolytes subject too?

A

homeostatic control

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15
Q

What does Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system do?

A

Promotes reabsorption of Na+ (and water) in DCT; exchange for K+, H+
Angiotensin is a potent vasoconstrictor

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16
Q

What affect does Atrial Natriuretic Hormone have on Na+

A

increases excretion

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17
Q

What hormone is K+ regulated by?

A

aldosterone

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18
Q

What are disorders associated with ADH secretion?

A

Hypo-secretion:
Diabetes insipidus
Large volumes of insipid (tasteless) urine (cf. diabetes mellitus)
Hyper-secretion:
Syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH)
Excess ADH  water retention

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19
Q

describe the effects of K+ on nerve function?

A

Increasing ECF [K+]  depolarisation
Depolarisation causes axons to fire AP
But the MP does not return to ‘resting’ levels
Result is that axon remains in an extended ‘refractory period’

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20
Q

Describe what happens to blood during shock

A

The decreased blood volume results in a fall in blood pressure and impaired delivery of nutrients to cells

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21
Q

What are four reactions to blood loss?

A

Immediate:
Stop the bleeding
Short term:
Restore blood pressure
Medium term:
Restore fluid volume
Long term:
Replace blood constituents

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22
Q

Describe immediate blood loss

A

Stopping blood loss (haemostasis)
Several components involved:
Vascular response
Platelet response
Plasma response (Coagulation)

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23
Q

In blood loss what is the vascular response in regards to smooth muscle?

A

Spasm due to trauma
Myogenic response
Humoral factors (vasoconstrictors)

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24
Q

in blood loss what is the vascular response in regards to epithelium?

A

Platelet adhesion and aggregation
Anticlotting and fibrinolysis

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25
Describe the platelet response to blood loss?
Damage to blood vessel  turbulent blood flow  platelets come into contact with vessel wall (collagen) Platelets adhere; clump together (aggregate) Release chemicals that cause further aggregation (Positive feedback) Formation of platelet plug Effective in sealing small blood vessels
26
What does a platelet plug do?
effective in sealing small blood vessels
27
What is coagulation?
Various plasma proteins and tissue components combine to convert fibrinogen  fibrin to form the blood clot
28
Where are most clotting factors produced?
the liver
29
What is required for the synthesis of clotting factors
vitamin K
30
Names some clotting factors?
. Fibrinogen II. Prothrombin III. Tissue factor (‘thromboplastin’) IV. Calcium ions V. Proaccelerin VI. Antivampire factor- same as 4 no 6 VII. Proconvertin
31
Describe the intrinsic blood coagulation pathway?
usually serves to maintain the process once it has started Vascular damage, Contact activation involving Factors: XII, XI, IX, VIII Phospholipid Calcium ions
32
describe the extrinsic blood coagulation pathway.
usually important for initiating clotting after injury Tissue damage, Tissue factors (‘tissue thromboplastin’) Factor VII, Phospholipid Calcium ions
33
What pathway plays an important tole in thrombosis
Intrinsic pathway
34
What is fibrinolysis?
When a blood clot has served it's purpose it is dissolved, this is undertaken by the enzyme plasmin
35
when blood pressure falls what triggers a response? (short term)
Baroreceptors
36
What are baroreceptors mediated by? (short term)
Sympathetic nerves Hormones: Adrenaline Angiotensin II Vasopressin (ADH)
37
How does a medium-level response restore blood pressure level?
Shifting interstitial fluid back into blood vessels Decreasing fluid loss in kidney Increasing fluid intake
38
Through the baroreceptor reflexes what does the decrease in arterial blood pressure cause?
Vasoconstriction of arterioles Increased Total Peripheral Resistance Decreased capillary blood pressure This decreases the hydrostatic pressure pushing fluid out of the capillary More fluid is drawn back into the capillaries by the oncotic pressure
39
describe a decreased fluid loss in kidneys?
decreased Glomerular filtration increased reabsorption of Na+ and H2O by stimulating release of : Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone Antidiuretic hormone Both of these are vasoconstrictors
40
What is important in the control of thirst?
hypothalamus
41
Describe long term response to blood pressure?
Restore plasma proteins Released from liver (3-4 days) Replace blood cells, esp. RBCs Erythropoiesis Regulated by erythropoeitin (EPO) EPO released from kidney Stimulates RBC production in bone marrow Return to normal in 2-3 months
42
What are three types of shock?
Hypovolaemic shock  ECF volume, due to haemorrhage, sweating, diarrhoea, burns, etc Low resistance (or distributive) shock  peripheral resistance, due to widespread vasodilation, e.g. anaphylactic shock Cardiogenic shock heart fails as a pump
43
What is shock characterised as?
Shock is characterised by inadequate blood flow to tissues This is often associated with decreased cardiac output decreased blood or ECF volume
44
Give 3 definitions of stress?
To emphasise certain words in speech A force applied to a body causing deformation or strain emotional or mental pressure
45
what can induce stress?
Physical Injury, surgery Infection, shock Pain Exposure to cold Sustained exercise Threats Imprisonment, torture Exams
46
What does the effects of stress depend on?
duration and severity of the stressor the effectiveness of any responses
47
What are the stages/reactions in stress?
Alarm reaction fight, flight, fright response Physiological effects Resistance phase Adapting to stressor Exhaustion phase Severe, persistent stress Responses futile; systems fail Pathological effects
48
What are the neuronal and hormonal responses to the alarm reaction in stress?
Neural: Sympathetic nervous system Hormonal: adrenal glands: Adrenaline (adrenal medulla) Corticosteroids (adrenal cortex]
49
In the alarm reaction describe the neural component of the sympathetic nervous system?
Increased cardiac output increase HR, decrease ventricular contractility Redistribution of cardiac output increased flow to muscle; decreased flow to gut, kidney Metabolic Glycogen breakdown -> glucose release Mobilisation of fat stores (release of free fatty acids) Stimulation of adrenaline release
50
What is adrenaline secreted by?
adrenal medulla- part of sympathetic
51
what are glucocorticoids secreted by?
adrenal cortex
52
What is cortisol?
Main stress hormone- a steriod
53
describe the actions of cortisol
Metabolic: Increased energy production from glucose, amino acids and fats Increased protein breakdown Enhances the actions of adrenaline This is called a ‘permissive effect’ Anti-inflammatory actions Immunosuppression
54
what are two substances that glucocorticoids inhibit release of?
prostaglandins and leukotrienes
55
what is corticoid therapy used for?
Arthritis Long-term corticosteroid therapy can disrupt the normal control mechanisms The drug will suppress CRH and ACTH release, and the natural stress response is suppressed
56
What is stress analgesia?
pain is diminished due to physical stress. Due to release of endogenous opioid peptides, endorphins, enkephalins in the CNS
57
What happens to the individual if the stressors continue to be present?
Either they ‘cope’ (Adaptation phase) Or they don’t (Exhaustion phase)
58
Describe the adaptation phase of stress
With persistent exposure to the stressor(s), an individual’s stress response diminishes The individual has ‘adapted’ The stressor is no longer a ‘threat’ The individual has become ‘resistant’ to the stressors This generally happens if the individual’s responses are effective in removing the stressor
59
What happens when patients fail to adapt to stress?
Its effects persist: Adrenal failure Immunosuppression Peptic ulcers CVS disease Death can result in extreme cases
60
Describe Type A and Type B individuals?
Type ‘A’ individuals: hard-driving, competitive individuals are more prone to high blood pressure and CHD than: Type ‘B’ individuals, who tend to be more relaxed and less impatient
61
Give functions of calcium
Bone and tooth structure Mineral store Action potentials (cardiac muscle) Membrane excitability 2nd messenger Muscle: excitation-contraction coupling Gland secretion Non-steroid hormone action Co-factor in metabolic pathways Blood clotting
62
What is involved in calcium homeostasis?
Parathyroid hormone Calcitonin Vitamin D
63
How does the parathyroid hormone act to increase plasma calcium?
increase resorption of bone (osteoclasts) increase Ca2+ resorption in kidney (with decrease PO4 resorption) increase uptake of Ca2+ from the intestines (assisted by Vitamin D)
64
Where is calcitonin secreted?
thyroid glands in response to high plasma
65
How does calcitonin aim to lower plasma?
increase formation of bone (osteoblasts) decrease Ca2+ resorption in kidney
66
What hormones are involved in increase bone formation and bone mass?
Calcitonin Growth hormone IGF-1 Insulin Oestrogen Testosterone
67
What hormones are involved in increased bone reabsorption and decreased bone mass?
Cortisol Parathyroid hormone Thyroid hormones
68
Name three bone cells?
Osteoclasts, Osteoblasts, Osteocytes
69
what happens in Hyperparathyroidism?
Osteitis fibrosa cystica: areas of demineralisation in skull and leg bones can cause defective mineralisation of teeth due to low blood calcium levels
70
What occurs/ can occur through a vitamin D deficiency?
Failure to synthesis in body:  Ca uptake from G.I Tract Undermineralised bone Bone lacks rigidity Rickets (children) Osteomalacia (adults)
71
does increased and decreased levels of calcitonin have any clinical effects?
no, probably not essential enough for plasma role
72
Name two bone diseases that affect bone mass?
Osteoporosis: Decreased bone mass and density Osteopetrosis Increased bone mass and density
73
Describe Osteoporosis
Reduced bone density Loss of matrix with 2o loss of mineral Fractures common Common in elderly Affects men and women; but is evident earlier in women (menopause) Other causes: corticosteroids, nutritional deficiency
74
Describe Osteopetrosis
Increased bone density Reduced blood supply Prone to fracture and chronic infection Difficult extractions Tooth roots indistinct on radiographs Mandible > maxilla

Human Systems (12 decks)

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