Human Lifespan Development (2) Flashcards
Healthy relationships result in…
- acceptance
- trust
- compromise
- respect
- responsibility
- honesty
Unhealthy relationships result in…
- stress
- isolation
- distrust
- blame
- low self-esteem
- insecurity
Independence in infancy
- depend on others for care
- play alone but like a familiar adult near by
Independence in early childhood
- develop necessary skills to become independent in personal care
- develop likes and dislikes
Independence in adolescence
- enjoy more freedom, can make independent decisions but emotion may affect this ability
- take responsibility for own actions but influenced by others
Independence in early adulthood
- may live with parents but is independent
- make own decisions about personal life and career
- often a time for relationships, marriage and family
Independence in middle adulthood
- increasingly independent
- increased freedom with life changes (e.g. children leave home)
Independence in later adulthood
- make own decisions
- may have financial constraint if relying on state pension
- changes in capacity may reduce ability to make own decisions
Independence is influenced by…
- stage of emotional development
- physical disability
- health
- culture
- stage of social development
What is peer pressure?
Person or group influencing an individual to change their behaviour, values or beliefs so they conform to a peer group
Negative behaviours due to peer pressure…
- smoking, alcohol, drugs
- truancy
- bullying
- vandalising
Positive behaviours due to peer pressure…
- studying
- learning a new skill
- safe sex
- taking part in sports
What is nature?
Influences of inherited features of development
Children have inherited skills, abilities and behaviours from parents
What is nurture?
Influence of environment
Based on assumption that characteristics are acquired and can be shaped through experiences
Nature vs nurture:
Debate whether children are influenced more by nurture or nature
What are genes?
Sets of instructions to cells that determine growth and development
Inherit 23 pairs or chromosomes which contain genes
Dominant genes…
Needs only one to be passed on by one parent for offspring to develop condition
(e.g. brittle bone disease)
Recessive genes…
Must be passed on from both parents for offspring to develop condition
(e.g. cystic fibrosis)
biological factors affecting development
Mothers lifestyle:
- poor diet
- drug use
- alcohol use
- smoking
Effects of poor lifestyle choices during pregnancy:
- low birth weight
- premature birth
- long-term health problems
- developmental delay
- congenital detects (defects in developing foetus)
Symptoms of foetal alcohol syndrome:
- small head circumference
- neurological problems
- abnormal growth
- developmental delay
- facial abnormalities
Factors contributing to congenital anomalies
- genetic (e.g. down’s syndrome)
- nutritional (e.g. folate deficiency)
- environmental (e.g. maternal exposure to chemicals, alcohol, tobacco)
- infections (e.g. rubella resulting in deafness)
factors affecting human growth and development
- inherited
- environmental
- social
- economic
- biological
- life events
How does pollution happen?
When harmful substances contaminate atmosphere
Taken into body via nose, mouth or through skin
Outdoor pollutants include…
- traffic fumes
- domestic fumes
- industry
- pesticides
Indoor pollutants include…
- cleaning chemicals
- aerosols
- cigarette smoke
- mould/bacteria
Possible effects of poor housing conditions…
- inadequate heating: hypothermia
- lack of outdoor space: cardiovascular problems
- poor sanitation: risk of infection
- poor ventilation/mould/damp: respiratory disorders
- overcrowding: anxiety/depression
Barrier to accessing services: service availability
- services not available in some geographical areas
- may be restrictions on services
- pressure on services - increased demand
- waiting times affected by lack of availability
- lack of public transport to get to and from services
Barrier to accessing services:
individuals circumstances
- mobility difficulties restrict physical access
- learning difficulties impact on understanding of services
- personal circumstances can make attending services difficult
Characteristics of a dysfunctional family:
- needs of members aren’t met
- members display negativity towards each other
- abuse may occur
- sibling rivalry
Reasons for family dysfunction:
- parents perpetuate own dysfunctional upbringing
- untreated mental illness in family members
- substance abuse by one or more family members
Effects of parental divorce or separation:
- guilt
- isolation
- stress
- psychological problems
- health problems
- increased likelihood of substance use
Authoritative parenting style:
- children are accepted for who they are
- mutual love and respect
- children have high self-esteem
Permissive parenting style:
- parents don’t attempt to control behaviour
- children may be impulsive and have difficulties building friendships
Authoritarian parenting style:
- parents assert authority
- children are controlled
- children may have poor social skills and low self-esteem
Disengaged parenting style:
- parents are neglectful and show lack of interest
- poor attachment
- children have low confidence and hide their emotions
Types of bullying:
- verbal (use words to hurt - name calling, racist/sexist comments, ridiculing)
- physical (hitting, kicking, damaging others’ belongings)
- emotional (causing psychological hurt - spreading rumours, excluding, ignoring)
- cyber bullying (sending hurtful texts, posting hurtful comments online, sharing personal information)
Short-term effects of bullying:
- stress/anxiety
- withdrawal from school, work and activities
- low self-esteem
- poor self-image
- eating disorders
Long-term effects of bullying:
- difficulties in forming relationships
- poor academic achievement
- substance misuse
- self-harm
- increased risk of suicide
What do culture, community and beliefs influence?
- lifestyle
- personal values
- diet
- relationships
Economic factors:
- income and expenditure (persons income and wealth)
- education (stages reached and achievement)
- employment status
- lifestyle and health (ability to afford healthy diets or access exercise facilities)
Effects of physical factors
+ manual jobs improve muscle tone
+ regular exercise to keep systems and joints healthy
- manual jobs cause muscular and skeletal problems
- desk jobs can cause lack of exercise - obesity
Effect of intellectual factors
+ working or being in education improves skills
+ exercise promotes cognitive development
- out of work may make memory deteriorate
Effect of emotional factors
+ high status job-positive self-esteem and self-image
+ adequate income provides opportunities
- unemployment gives negative self-image
- poor health due to lifestyle leads to lack of choice and independence
- concerns about unemployment may lead to stress
Effect of social factors
+ being in education provides opportunities to develop friendships
- low income or unemployment gives fewer opportunities for building relationships
- poor lifestyle may lead to breakdown in relationships
What are predictable life events?
Events likely to happen to most people (e.g. starting school or work)
Often have positive effects such as building self-esteem, develop confidence, further learning
Changes can still cause anxiety-may affect health
What are unpredictable life events?
Life events that are not expected (e.g. accident or serious illness)
Happen with little or no warning-can’t be prepared for
Life events might cause…
- headaches/migraines
- mental health problems
- high blood pressure
- stress/sleeping difficulties
- heart and digestive problems
What can extreme stress from life events cause?
serious mental and physical problems
Changes in the heart with ageing
- heart may increase in size-heart well thickens so more difficult for heart muscles to relax and fill with blood between beats
- pacemaker cells decrease
- artery walls narrow-clogged by fats so prevents blood flow
- heart valves that control blood flow become thicker and stiffer
Changes in heart increase the likelihood of…
- angina
- high blood pressure
- heart murmurs
- strokes
- heart attack
- heart failure
Health factors that exacerbate heart disease
- diabetes
- genetic inheritance
- high cholesterol
- high blood pressure
- obesity
Lifestyle factors that increase risk of cardiovascular disease
- alcohol
- smoking
- diet high in salt
- diet high in saturated fats
- lack of exercise
Negative effects of cardiovascular disease in later life
- loss of independence
- anxiety about health
- depression
- frustration
- reduced mobility
Positive effects of cardiovascular disease in later life
- closer relationships with family members and friends
- choosing to improve lifestyle
Degeneration of nervous tissue causes…
- increased reaction times
- decline in short-term memory
- effects on senses
- reduction in reflexes and movement
- difficulty receiving and processing information
What may cause degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease?
Loss of neurones from structures of the brain that control movement
What area of the brain does Parkinson’s affect?
Substantia nigra
Physical effects of Parkinson’s
- mobility: slowness of movement and muscle stiffness
- tremor: uncontrollable shaking, begins in hand and arm
Cognitive effects of Parkinson’s
- depression
- anxiety
- impairment in thinking and problem solving
Degeneration of taste with age:
- number of taste buds decreases (reduces enjoyment of food so may result in poor diet)
- production of saliva decreases (affects taste and enjoyment of food)
- ability to smell decreases
Degeneration of sight with age:
- vision becomes less sharp
- cataracts may develop (clouds vision)
- peripheral vision deteriorates
- eye muscles weaken (reduces field of vision)
Degeneration of touch with age:
- less sensitive to temperature (lead to burns, frostbite or hypothermia)
- reduced sensitivity to injury
- increased sensitivity to touch (can cause bruising)
- skin is more sensitive to sun (sunburn or skin cancer)
Degeneration of bearing with age:
- fluid-filled tubes in inner ear (maintain balance) become affected (prone to dizziness or falls)
- ability to hear high frequency sounds deteriorates
- distinguishing between sounds is more difficult
Degeneration of sense organs can cause…
- low self-image
- isolation
- reduced opportunities for socialising
- anxiety and depression
- loss of independence
- difficultly participating in leisure activities (e.g. reading)
What is osteoarthritis?
- swelling and pain in joints
- damage to soft tissue around joints
- difficultly walking
- difficultly climbing stairs
Risk of osteoarthritis is increased by…
- being over age 40
- injury to joints
- genetic inheritance
- obesity
- being female
- joint abnormality
What is the reduction of absorption of nutrients caused by?
- reduced production of gastric hydrochloric acid (prevents breakdowns of fat, protein and carbs)
- deterioration of function of digestive organs
What is dementia?
term used to describe symptoms associated with damage to function of brain (such as memory loss)
Facts about dementia
- strokes can cause it
- lifestyle factors (smoking) increase risk of strokes
- risk increased with age
- dementia is a progressive disease (more damage over time)
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
- most common cause of dementia
- mainly effects people 65+ years
- plaques and tangles build up in brain>leads to shortage of chemicals in brain>affects transmission of signals
Early stage of Alzheimer’s
- decline in short term memory
- difficultly completing routine tasks
- impairment in thinking
Later stage of Alzheimer’s
- language impairment
- lack of judgement
- emotional outbursts
- changes in behaviour
Final stage of Alzheimer’s
- unable to recognise family members
- almost total loss of memory
- unable to feed or care for self
- lack of control of bodily functions
- death
Support for early stage of Alzheimer’s
- medication
- informal help with daily tasks
- memory clinics
Support for later stage of Alzheimer’s
- respite care
- medication
- support in home with personal care
Support for final stage of Alzheimer’s
- residential/hospice care
- personal care
- end-of-life care
Physical effects of illness in ageing:
- body less able to fight infection
- lost mobility
- reduce stamina
- affects senses (less sharp)
Intellectual effects of illness in ageing:
- short term memory loss
- affect decision-making skills
- cause difficulties in verbal communication
Emotional effects of illness in ageing:
- emotional distress
- dependent on others for care
- feel out of control
- result in low self-esteem
Social effects of illness in ageing:
- reduced opportunities to socialise
- affects ability to communicate in groups
- impact on neural capacity (makes socialising difficult)
Lifestyle choices to exacerbate impact of ill health in ageing
Healthy diet - additional nutrients to reduce decline in health
Exercise - keeps joints mobile and maintains muscle strength
Drugs - may control illness (recreational drugs negatively affect mood and intellectual development)
Social changes with ageing:
Retirement - low self esteem as feel you lack purpose, but increases leisure time
Losing own home - affects security and contentment
Reduced mobility- reduce wellbeing and cause cognitive decline
Loss of independence- feel hopeless
Financial concerns with ageing:
- less opportunity to socialise
- less money to buy food
- less money to pay for adequate heating
- worry and stress over money and bills
Loneliness in ageing:
Taking buses or driving makes older adults feel part of the community and reduce feelings of loneliness
How can older people be supported to get satisfaction from life?
by encouraging:
- involvement in new activities (hobbies)
- planning of new goals
- development of new relationships
- decision-making and choices about their own care
Provision for older people is needed for…
- age-related diseases
- loss of independence
- loss of mobility
- prevention or slowing of age-related disease
- increased risk of falls/injury
Types of provision available:
- Acute care: meeting immediate health needs (e.g. broken hip)
- Healthcare: medication, palliative care
- Social care: own home, day care or residential, assessing needs, personal care
- Community equipment: keep people mobile and independent in own homes
- Psychological care: counsellors
- Benefits: financial support, adaptions to home
- End-of-life care: pain relief, psychological support
How are healthy older people helped to stay healthy?
- health monitoring and screening
- winter fuel and cold weather payments
- provision of social/leisure activities
- rehab after stay in hospital
- occupational therapy
What is formal health care?
Statutory
Private
Voluntary
What is informal health care?
Provided by family, community or religious groups
Impacts of % rise in older people on the economy
- health and welfare: higher demand and increased costs
- pension costs: less money for economic investment
- housing: more retirement homes required - more cost
Government responses to % rise in older people:
- raised retirement age
- easier for older people to stay in work/work part time
- encourage people in work to take out private pensions
- increase taxes to pay for state pensions
Pressure on services due to::
- advances in medicine mean people live longer
- families less able/willing to care for older family members at home
- increase in numbers of older people with chronic conditions
