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Higher Human Biology > Human Cells > Flashcards

Human Cells Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Cellular differentiation?

A

The process by which a cell develops more specialised functions by expressing the genes characteristic for that cell type.

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2
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Body cells that are not Gametes

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3
Q

Where are somatic cells found and what do they make up?

A

Found throughout body

Make up different types of body tissue

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4
Q

How do somatic cells divide?

A

by mitosis

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5
Q

Somatic cells are diploid what does this mean?

A

contain 23 pairs of homologous chrmosomes

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6
Q

What are the 4 basic animal tissues?

A

Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve

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7
Q

Describe each of the 4 animal tissues?

A

Epithelial - cover the body surfaces and line the body cavities

Connective - supports, separates and binds other tissues

Muscle - made up of muscle cells, ability to contract

Nerve- main component of nervous system, senses stimuli and sends nerve impulses around the body

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8
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

A

Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth

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9
Q

What are the two main cell types in the nerve tissue?

A

Nerve cells

Glial cells

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10
Q

What are Stem cells?

A

Stem cells are unspecialised somatic cells that can divide to make copies of themselves or differentiate into specialised cells

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11
Q

What are the two types of stem cells?

A

Embryonic

Tissue

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12
Q

Describe Embryonic stem cells?

A
  • come from inner cell mass of an early embryo
  • can self-renew
  • Can differentiate into all cell types of that organism(pluripotent)
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13
Q

Describe Tissue stem cells?

A
  • can differentiate into cell types of the tissue they are found in
  • involved in growth, repair and renewal of cells
  • They are multipotent
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14
Q

What is differentiation?

A

Differentiation is when cells become specialised

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15
Q

Describe Differentiation?

A
  • Unspecialised cells become adapted to perform a specific function
  • therefore cells switch on or off particular gene
  • Once a cell differentiates it expresses genes that produce proteins characteristic for that cell type
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16
Q

Why are cells specialised?

A

To conserve energy

division of labour

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17
Q

What is a germline cell?

A

A germline cell is a cell which can divide to produce Gametes

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18
Q

Where are germline cells found?

A

Ovaries and Testes

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19
Q

What are the different ways germline cells can divide?

A

Mitosis - forms two new diploid germline daughter cells

Meiosis - forms four new haploid gamete cells

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20
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A mutation is a change to the genetic code in a cell

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21
Q

How can a mutation in a germline cell be passed to offspring?

A

The cells divide to form gametes

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22
Q

Why are mutations in somatic cells not passed to offspring?

A

these cells divide to form new somatic cells

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23
Q

Define Cancer?

A

Cancer is an uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells

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24
Q

Define Tumour?

A

Cells which continue to divide to form a mass of abnormal cells

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25
Q

How are most cancers formed?

A

When series of mutations takes place in somatic cells

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26
Q

What do mutagenic agents do?

A

They increase the rate of mutations in cells

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27
Q

Name two Mutagenic agents?

A

Radiation

Carcinogenic chemicals

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28
Q

Describe Benign tumours?

A
  • Form in an area of the body
  • cells adhere to each other and remain in that area
  • do not spread and are not classed as a cancer
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29
Q

Describe Malignant tumours?

A
  • cells do not adhere to each other

- They can spread to other tissues and form secondary tumours

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30
Q

Where are chromosomes found?

A

In the nucleus

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31
Q

What do chromosomes contain ?

A

Genetic information which code for proteins

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32
Q

What are chromosomes made up of?

A

DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

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33
Q

The sequence of genetic code determines what?

A

The genotype of an organism

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34
Q

Describe DNA?

A
  • Twisted double helix
  • double stranded
  • built from subunits called nucleotides
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35
Q

A DNA nucleotide has 3 parts to it, name them?

A

Phosphate
Deoxyribose sugar
base

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36
Q

How is a sugar phosphate backbone formed?

A

The nucleotides join together between the deoxyribose sugar and the phosphate group of the next

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37
Q

What are the 4 DNA bases?

A

ADENINE(A)
THYMINE(T)
GUANINE(G)
CYTOSINE(C)

38
Q

What do Weak hydrogen bonds do?

A

hold the two strands of DNA together

39
Q

What does complementary base pair mean?

A

The bases will always pair up with in DNA
A - T
C - G

40
Q

Describe the two ends of DNA strands?

A

A 3’ end with deoxyribose sugar at the end

A 5’ end with phosphate at the end

41
Q

DNA strands will always run what to each other?

A

Antiparallel

42
Q

DNA can do what ?

A

Control its own replication?

43
Q

When does DNA replication take place?

A

Before Mitosis or Meiosis and cell division

44
Q

DNA replication is described as what?

A

Semi conservative as each daughter molecule contains one strand from the original molecule and one newly synthesised strand

45
Q

Describe stage 1 of DNA replication?

A
  • molecule unwinds and unzips
  • 2 template strands formed
  • exposes bases of original DNA strands
46
Q

Describe stage 2 of DNA replication?

A
  • DNA nucleotides line up through complementary base pairing
47
Q

Describe stage 3 of DNA replication?

A

-Hydrogen bonds form between base pairs

48
Q

Describe stage 4 of DNA replication?

A
  • DNA polymerase forms the sugar phosphate backbone at the 3’ end
49
Q

Describe DNA Polymerase?

A

DNA polymerase replicates a dna strand precisely using DNA nucleotides
Needs a primer to start replication
can only add complementary nucleotides to the 3’ end

50
Q

How are the two strands of DNA replicated differently?

A

leading strand is replicated continuously

lagging strand is replicated in fragments

51
Q

what enzyme joins fragments produced in the lagging strand?

A

Ligase

52
Q

What must be present for DNA replication to occur?

A 
DNA template
Free DNA nucleotides
Primers
ATP
Enzymes
53
Q

How is phenotype determined?

A

By the proteins produced as a result of gene expression

54
Q

what does intra and extra cellular mean?

A

Intra cellular inside the cell

extra cellular outside the cell

55
Q

The sequence of bases on the DNA is called what?

A

The genetic code

56
Q

What is stage 1 of gene expression (Protein synthesis)?

A

Transcription - the genetic code is copied and a copy of it is carried on a strand of mRNA to a ribosome

57
Q

What is stage 2 of gene expression (Protein synthesis)?

A

Translation - tRNA caries specific amino acids to the ribosome tRNA and mRNA pair up through complementary base pairing

58
Q

Describe the structure of RNA

A

RNA is a nucleic acid

It is made up of nucleotides joined together by sugar phosphate bonding

59
Q

What are the three types of RNA?

A

messenger - mRNA
Transfer - tRNA
Ribosomal -rNA

60
Q

Describe the types of RNA

A

mRNA - Long single stranded chain that carries a copy of the genetic code from nucleus to ribosome.
tRNA - Carries specific amino acids to the ribosome
rNA - Ribosomes are made up of rRNA and protein subunits

61
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A mutation is a change to the genetic structure of an organism?

62
Q

How a re genetic disorders caused?

A

Changes to genes or chromosomes which result in proteins not being expressed or the proteins not functioning properly.

63
Q

what are single gene mutations?

A

They change the sequence of nucleotides of the DNA

64
Q

What is Bioinformatics?

A

Bioinformatics is the use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences

65
Q

What is systematics?

A

Systematics is the comparison of the human genome sequence data that provides information on the evolutionary releationships and origins

66
Q

What is PCR?

A

Polymerase chain reaction is a technique to amplify DNA outside the body.
This is the process of taking tiny samples of DNA and producing vast numbers of copies of it

67
Q

What is a metabolic pathway?

A

A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzyme controlled reactions where the products of one reaction can influence the next reaction in the pathway.

68
Q

What are the two types of chemical reaction within a cell?

A

Anabolic - build up reactions

Catabolic breakdown reactions

69
Q

How do enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions?

A

By lowering the activation energy in the reaction

70
Q

What is an inhibitor?

A

An inhibitor is a molecule that reduces or stops enzyme activity

71
Q

What is respiration?

A

Respiration is a metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down glucose it is a series of enzyme controlled reactions

72
Q

How is ATP built up?

A

ATP is built up from ADP and phosphate by PHOSPHORYLATION

73
Q

What is Phosphorylation?

A

Phosphorylation is when a phosphate group is added to a molecule making it more reactive

74
Q

Where does the Citric acid Cylcle take place?

A

In the central matrix of the mitochondria

75
Q

What is the electron transport chain?

A

A group of proteins attached to the inner membrane of the mitochondria

76
Q

What is the final electron acceptor?

A

Oxygen, which combines with hydrogen ions and electrons to form water.

77
Q

What does Phosphofructokinase do?

A

controls the phosphorylation of the irreversible stage of glycolysis

78
Q

What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?

A

Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth

79
Q

What are the 4 types of tissue?

A

Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve

80
Q

What are three types of connective tissue?

A

Bone
Blood
Cartilage

81
Q

Explain Cellular differentiation?

A

Cellular differentiation is the process by which a cell develops more specialised functions by expressing the genes characteristic of that type of cell

82
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Body cells that are not gametes

83
Q

Somatic cells are said to be what?

A

Diploid

84
Q

Somatic cells divide by what?

A

Mitosis to produce genetically identical diploid daughter cells

85
Q

Give an example of epithelial tissue

A

Skin

86
Q

Skeletal muscle tissue is involved in what?

A

Voluntary movements

87
Q

Nerve tissue is the main component of what?

A

the nervous system

88
Q

Smooth muscle is found where?

A

digestive tract, bladder and arteries

89
Q

Smooth muscle tissue is involved in what?

A

Involuntary movements such as peristalsis

90
Q

Cardiac muscle is found where?

A

The heart

91
Q

There are two main cell types in the nerve tissue what are they?

A

Nerve cells and Gial Cells

92
Q

A nerve cell does what?

A

Senses stimuli and sends nerve impulses around the body through the nervous system

Higher Human Biology (6 decks)

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