Human Behavior Flashcards
Theories: Sigmund Freud – Psychoanalytic Theory
primarily a dynamic, motivational theory
less emphasis on cognitive and intellectual forces
mostly focused on drives
Psychoanalytic Theory: Topographical Theory
unconscious
preconscious
consciousness
Topographical Theory: Unsconscious
Content: repressed fantasies and experiences of childhood and adolescence
Primary Process Functioning: tendency to immediate discharge of mental energies
Inaccessibility to consciousness
Wish Fulfillment: wishes are motivating force behind dreams
Infantile: guided by pleasure principle
Topographical Theory: Preconscious
Accessibility to consciousness
Includes a censor which blocks the unconscious
Operates according to reality principle
Topographical Theory: Consciousness
Sensations due to stimuli from the outer world
Sensations due to inner events
Reality principle functioning
Psychoanalytic Theory: Structural Theory
Id
Ego
Personality Development
Structural Theory: Id
source of all motives, energies, and instincts
cathexes of the id are mobile and press for immediate and rapid discharge
Structural Theory: Ego
rational, reality-oriented system
Structural Theory: Personality Development
infant is a pure id, governed by the pleasure principle, and seeks total and immediate gratification
id striving collides with reality leading to ego development
the ego develops practical strategies for coping, including the capacity for delay and for delay gratification
the ego is then governed by the reality principle
reality-oriented thinking is called secondary process thought
in early childhood, the oedipal complex occurs, with subsequent development of the super ego
Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychosexual Stages of Development
Oral Stage
Anal Stage
Phallic Stage
Latency Stage
Genital Stage
Psychosexual Stage of Development: Oral Stage
birth to 1.5 years
mouth and upper digestive tract are main channels of gratification (gratifying objects include nipple and mother)
Psychosexual Stage of Development: Anal Stage
1.5 to 3 years
child gains control over anal sphincter and bowel movement
Psychosexual Stage of Development: Phallic Stage
3 to 5 years
main sources of gratification shift from the anal to the genital zone
gratification is sought without concern for others
major experience is the oedipal complex which is resolved at the end of the phallic stage with the development of the superego
oedipal complex begins about age four (the boy’s phallic striving is directed toward the mother; the boy is in competition with the father who he loves and hates)
the boy identifies with the father and internalizes the father’s values and attitudes; this leads to the development of the superego and the ability to experience guilt
oedipal complex in girls leads to repression of desire for the father, identification with the mother, and internalization of the mother’s values
Psychosexual Stage Development: Latency Stage
6 to 10 years
characterized by the sublimation of the oedipal stage with the expression of sexual and aggressive drives in socially acceptable forms
Psychosexual Stage Development: Genital Stage
10 through adulthood
acceptance of one’s genitalia and concern for the well being of others
cathexis: not a psychosexual stage but a related concept
when needs associated with a stage are well satisfied, the child withdraws cathexis, and energy is reinvested in a new zone and new objects
if gratification is excessive or inadequate, the child may remain fixated
if the child encounters excessive frustration, the child may regress to an earlier development stage
Psychoanalytic Theory: Adult Personality Types
Oral Personality
Anal Personality
Phallic Personality
Adult Personality Types: Oral Personality
infantile, demanding, dependent behavior, and preoccupation with oral gratification
Adult Personality Types: Anal Personality
stinginess, and excessive focus on accumulating and collecting
rigidity regarding forms and routines, suspiciousness, legalistic thinking
Adult Personality Types: Phallic Personality
selfishly exploits others sexually, without regard to their needs or concerns
Theories: Anna Freud – The Defense Mechanism
unconscious processes
ego attempts to expel from consciousness those sexual and aggressive impulses that are anxiety evoking
attempts to protect oneself from painful anxiety and are universally used (defenses are an indication of disturbance when their cost outweighs their protective value
The Defense Mechanism: Defense Mechanisms
Compensation
Conversion
Denial
Displacement
Identification
Introjection
Inversion
Isolation of Affect
Intellectualization
Projection
Rationalization
Reaction Formation
Regression
Repression
Reversal
Splitting
Sublimation
Substitution
Undoing
Identification with the Aggressor
Defense Mechanisms: Compensation
defenses against feelings of inferiority and inadequacy growing out of real or imagined personal defects or weaknesses
Defense Mechanisms: Conversion
somatic changes expressed in symbolic body language
psychic pain is given a location in some part of the body
Defense Mechanisms: Denial
avoidance of awareness of some painful aspect of reality
Defense Mechanisms: Association
Anna Freud’s altruism
obtaining gratification through association with, and helping, another person who is gratifying through association with, and helping, another person who is gratifying the same instincts
Defense Mechanisms: Identification
process by which an individual becomes like another person in one or several respects
a more elaborate process than introjection
Defense Mechanisms: Introjection
taking in an idea or image so that it becomes part of oneself
assimilation of object representation into the self representation whenever the boundaries between self and object are blurred
Defense Mechanisms: Inversion
turning against the self
object of aggressive drive or impulse is changed from another person to the self
operative especially in depression and masochism
Defense Mechanisms: Isolation of Affect
a splitting of ideas from the feelings originally associated with them
the idea that remains in consciousness is therefore deprived of its motivational force so that action is thwarted and guilt avoided
Defense Mechanisms: Intellectualization
the psychological binding of instinctual drives in intellectual activities
Defense Mechanisms: Projection
attributing a painful impulse or idea to the external world
Defense Mechanisms: Rationalization
an attempt to give a logical explanation for painful unconscious material to avoid such feelings as guilt and shame
Defense Mechanisms: Reaction Formation
replacement in conscious awareness of a painful idea or feeling by its opposite
the unconscious material remains along with the conscious presence of its opposite
Defense Mechanisms: Regression
a retreat to an earlier phase of psychosexual development
Defense Mechanisms: Repression
the act of obliterating material from conscious awareness
a unique defense, capable of mastering powerful impulses
Defense Mechanisms: Reversal
form of reaction formation aimed at protection gtom painful affect
Defense Mechanisms: Splitting
external objects are either “all good” or “all bad”
suddens shifts of feelings and conceptualizations about an object
feelings may rapidly change from one category to the other
Defense Mechanisms: Sublimation
deflecting the energies of instinctual drives to generally positive aims that are more acceptable to the ego and superego
Defense Mechanisms: Substitution
substitution of one affect for another
Defense Mechanisms: Undoing
ritualistic performance of an act one has recently committed to cancel out or balance the evil that may have lurked in the act
Defense Mechanisms: Identification with the Aggressor
child introjects some characteristic of an anxiety-evoking object and assimilates an anxiety experience which s/he has just undergone
the child is thus able to transform him/herself from the person threatened to the person making the threat
Theories: Heinz Hartman – Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation
made several contributions to psychoanalytic theory
Adaptation
Conflict Free Ego Sphere
Average Expectable Environment
The Adaptive Function of Defense Mechanisms
Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation: Adaptation
no precise definition, but includes a reciprocal relationship between the organism and its environment
it is central for mental health
focus on adaptation involves a shift of attention from id to ego
its hallmarks are productivity, ability to enjoy life, and an undisturbed equilibrium
Adaptation: Alloplastic Behavior
changing environment to facilitate adaptation
Adaptation: Autoplastic Behavior
changing self
changing one’s position in the world
Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation: Conflict Free Ego Sphere
the ego has apparatus that exist outside of conflict and that have roots in the infant’s constitution
ego is more than a developmental by-product of the influence of reality on the instincts
the ego has a partly independent origin, or, said differently, there is an autonomous factor in ego development
Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation: Conflict Free Ego Sphere
ego has apparatuses that exist outside of conflict and that have roots in the infant’s constitution
the ego is more than a developmental by-product of the influence of reality on the instincts
the ego has a partly independent origin, or, said differently, there is an autonomous factor in ego development
Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation: Average Expectable Environment
refers to environments which are growth promoting and are both gratifying and frustrating, but within reasonable limits
Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation: The Adaptive Function of Defense Mechanisms
in addition to protecting from anxiety, defenses can facilitate adaptation
Theories: Erik Erikson – The Psychosocial Stages of Development
Epigenetic Principle
The Psychosocial Stages
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Epigenetic Principle
each individual develops after passing through eight fairly well defined stages
each stage exhibits a unique combination of needs and vulnerabilities
each stage focuses on some aspect of growth and culminates in an encounter or crisis, the outcome of which leads to the development of a vital human quality
takes into consideration the impact of broader environment, society, and its culture on the child’s development
The Psychosocial Stages: Trust vs. Mistrust
birth to 1.5 years
infants develop a sense of trust in self and in others
psychological dangers include a strong mistrust that develops later and exhibits as withdrawal when at odds with self and others
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
1.5 to 3 years
rapid growth in muscular maturation, verbalization, and ability to coordinate many highly conflicting action patterns characterized by tendencies of holding on and letting go
child begins to experience an autonomous will, which contributes to the process of identity-building and development of the courage to be an independent individual
psychologic dangers include infantile obsessiveness and procrastination, ritualistic repetitions to gain power, self-insistent stubbornness, compulsive restraint or meek compliance , and fear of loss of self-control
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Initiative vs. Guilt
3 to 6 years
intrusion into space via locomotion, into the unknown by curiosity, and into other by aggressive voice and physical attack , and thoughts of phallic entry into female
frees the child’s initiative and sense of purpose for adult tasks
psychological dangers include hysterical denial or self restriction, which keeps individual from actualizing inner capacities
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Industry vs. Inferiority
6 to 11 years
child’s need is to make well, to be a worker and potential provider
the development task is mastery over physical objects, self, social transaction, ideas, and concepts
the school and peer group are necessary for gaining testing mastery
psychological danger includes a sense of inferiority, incompetence, self-restraint, and conformity
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Identity vs. Identity Diffusion
adolescence
the critical task is to create an identity, to reintegrate various components of self into a whole person (a process of ego synthesis)
the peer group is of great importance in providing support, values, a primary reference group, and an area to experiment with various roles
psychological dangers include extreme identity confusion, feelings of estrangement, excessive conformity or rebelliousness, and idealism, which is a denial of reality, neurotic conflict, or delinquency
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Intimacy vs. Isolation
the task is to enter relationships with others in an involved, reciprocal way, sexually, occupationally, and socially
failure to achieve intimacy may lead to highly stereotyped interpersonal relationships and distancing, and a readiness to renounce, isolate, and even destroy others whose presence seems dangerous
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Generativity vs. Stagnation
the primary task is to develop concern for establishing and guiding the next generation, and the capacity for caring, nurturance, and concern for others
psychological danger is stagnation which includes caring primarily and essentially for oneself, an artifical intimacy with others, and self-indulgence
The Psychosocial Stages of Development: Integrity vs. Despair
the acceptance of one’s life, one’s achievements, and the people who have become significant as satisfactory and acceptable
psychological gander is despair, expressed in the sense that time is short to start another life or to test alternative roads to integrity
despair is accompanied by self criticism, regret, and fear of impending death
Theories: Piaget – Intellectual Development
characterized by studied cognitive development
the origins and development of cognitive functions and structures, rather than emotion, affect, or motivation
Intellectual Development: Methodology
small samples, including his own children
Intellectual Development: Genetic Psychology
not merely describing typical behavioral traits of children at a given age or period of development; rather attempts to explain genesis of behavior
Intellectual Development: Concepts
Action and Operation
Activity in Development
Adaptation
Intellectual Development Concepts: Action and Operation
action is overt behavior
operation is a particular kind of action which may be internalized thought
Intellectual Development Concepts: Activity in Development
child is not passively subject to environmental influences but actively contributes to the construction of his/her personality and universe
child acts on the environment, modifies it, and is an active participation in the construction of reality
Intellectual Development Concepts: Adaptation
includes assimilation and accommodation
assimilation is the incorporation of external reality into the existing mental organization
accommodation involves adapting to the characteristics of the object
Intellectual Development: Cognitive Stages of Development
Sensory-Motor Stage
Pre-Operational Stage
Concrete Operational Stage
Formal Operational Stage
Cognitive Stages of Development: Sensory-Motor Stage
birth to 2 years
infant lacks symbolic function (i.e., the infant cannot evoke representations of persons or objects when they are absent)
infant interacts with surroundings and is able to focus on objects other than the self
the infant learns to anticipate events
children learn that objects continue to exist when out of sight, and learn a beginning sense of causality
Cognitive Stages of Development: Pre-Operational Stage
2 to 7 years
the child acquires capacity to order and relate experience to an organized whole
the child can now explore several possible problem without necessarily adopting one, because s/he is able to return to his/her original outlook
Intellectual Development Concepts: Formal Operational Stage
11 through adolescence
youth can visualize events and concepts beyond the present and form theories
cognitive random behavior is replaced by a systemic approach to problems
youth gains objectivity and awareness of relative relationships, ability to reason by hypothesis, and to relate past, present, and future
Theories: Rene Spitz – Relationships Between Mother and Child
social stimulation is necessary for infant’s growth
infants deprived of social stimulation become apathetic, and some may become physically ill or die
the condition is defined as a disease called Marasmius
Relationship Between Mother and Child: Three Levels of Infant Ego Organization
First 3 months
8 months
14 months
Three Levels of Infant Ego: First 3 Months
infant moves from viscard perception to use of eyes and ears, and develops a reliable smile
Three Levels of Infant Ego: 8 Months
infant has achieved second level or organization, demonstrated by increased levels of anxiety when in the presence of a stranger
Three Levels of Infant Ego: 14 Months
infant achieves semantic communication, demonstrated by the ability to say no – a sign of independent thinking
Theories: Margaret Mahler – Seperation-Individuation Developmental Stages
Autistic
Symbiotic
Seperation-Individuation: Autistic
first month
infant is focused on the self, incapable of investing in others
Seperation-Individuation: Symbiotic
1-5 months
infant breaks out the autistic shell, understands mother’s existence as a separate being, but is also able to experience a feeling of unity with the mother
Seperation-Individuation: Process
Differentiation
Practicing
Rapprochement
Development of Object Constancy
Separation-Individuation Process: Differentiation
6-9 months
increased locomotion
Separation-Individuation Process: Practicing
9-14 months
child is more active - walking, playing
Separation-Individuation Process: Rapprochement
14-24 months
shadowing and darting – the child moves away from the mother but returns for emotional refueling
Separation-Individuation Process: Development of Object Constancy
after 14 months
child increases capacity to recall the mother despite her absence
Theories: Robert White – Independent Ego Energy
proposes an existence of an internal motivation to achieve competence based on various studies of animal and children’s behavior
Independent Ego Energy: Studies of Animal and Children’s Behavior
cites research showing exploration, manipulation, and playful, activities of animals that are unexplained by drive theory
these behaviors are not random, idle, or restless, nor merely responses to stimulation; show direction, selection, and persistence which can be interpreted as motivation
animals seek novelty and stimulation and they seem to establish a new relationship between self and object motivation to attain competence is directed toward achieving a feeling of efficacy, but leads to other vitally important learning
infant play leads to the ability to discriminate visual patterns, to catch and throw, and to coordinate eye and hand movements
play causes the infant to establish a concept of the object and leads to development of other basic developmental skills
Theories: Learning Theory and Behavior Modification
behavior can be explained, apart from few references to growth and maturation, as the continuous formation of connections among stimuli and responses
Learning Theory and Behavior Modification: Pavlov
linked experimentally manipulated stimuli to already existing natural, unconditioned stimuli that elicited a fixed, unconditioned response
this was accomplished by introducing the conditioned response just prior to the natural, unconditioned stimulus
sounded a bell just before giving a dog food, an autonomic stimulus for salivation
the bell becomes the stimulus for salivation, even when no food was given
a great many conditioned responses can be created through continuing reinforcement
Learning Theory and Behavior Modification: Dollard Miller, and Sears
attempted to fuse learning theory and psychoanalytic theory
Learning Theory and Behavior Modification: B.F. Skinner
Concept of the Empty Organism
Law of Effect
Schedules of Reinforcement
B.F. Skinner: Concept of the Empty Organism
infant has capacity for action built into his/her physical constitution, and reflexes and motivation that will set in random motion
B.F. Skinner: Law of Effect
governs development
children’s behavior is largely shaped by like circumstances
extinguishing or halting behavior is caused by denying satisfying rewards or through the application of punishment
B.F. Skinner: Schedules of Reinforcement
instead of reinforcing the organism every time it gives a correct response, one can reinforce some fixed percentage of occurrences of a particular response or space reinforcements according to some average time interval
intermittent reinforcement will also tend to reinforce the desired behavior
Theories: Types of Behaviors
Operant
Respondent
Flooding
Systematic Desensitization
Types of Behavior: Operant
controlled by consequences of that behavior
actions preceding or following the behavior need to be changed
if a child throws a tantrum and a parent shows concern by paying attention and rushing over, the behavior is reinforced
behavior can be extinguished by ignoring the tantrum or sending the child to his/her room until the tantrum is over
Types of Behavior: Respondent
elicited by a specific stimulus
person has to be desensitized to the stimuli
Types of Behavior: Flooding
used by behaviorists in the treatment of anxiety-ridden patients
it is based on a model of extinction of conditional avoidance behavior by response prevention (i.e., the patient is helped to confront the anxiety-inducing object at full intensity for prolonged periods of time
Types of Behavior: Systematic Desensitization
somewhat similar to flooding except that the patient is gradually led through images, pictures, and/or events of the anxiety-producing situation, and is enabled to discuss and cope with the affect
Theories: Ethno-Cultural Aspects
culture can be viewed as the social heritage of man
determines ways of acting and doing that are passed from generation to generation by formal and informal methods of socialization, teaching, and demonstration
includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and other capabilities acquired as a member of society
Theory of Cultural Relativism
Concepts
Ethno-Cultural Aspects: Theory of Cultural Relativism
values, beliefs, models of behavior, and conceptions of the nature of the world must be understood within the framework of the culture in which they occur
the dominant culture determines the contours and boundaries of normality and deviance
ethnic behavioral norms and expressions of emotional needs may differ from those of the larger culture and may be defined as abnormal
behaviors or attitudes may be perceived differently if they are understood through a unique cultural context
often important to know whether an individual from a particular ethnic group who exhibits unorthodox behavior is also a deviant within his/her own culture, as well as in his/her self-estimation
Theories: Concepts
Acculturation
Ethnic Identity
Social Identity
Virtual Social Identity
Actual Social Identity
Normification
Normalization
Oppressed Minorities
Concepts: Acculturation
the process of learning and adopting the dominant culture through accommodation and assimiliation
Concepts: Ethnic Identity
a sense of belonging to an identifiable group and having historical continuity, as well as a sense of common customs and mores transmitted over generations
Concepts: Social Identity
the dominant society establishes criteria for categorizing persons and the normal and ordinary attributes felt to be natural and ordinary for members of the society
Concepts: Virtual Social Identity
the characteristics attributed to individuals based on appearances, dialect, social setting, and material features
Concepts: Actual Social Identity
attributes the individual actually demonstrates
Concepts: Stigma
an attribute that makes an individual different from the group and is perceived to be a deeply discrediting trait, such as a physical abnormality, disease, race or nationality, religion, or mental illness
Concepts: Normification
treating the stigmatized individual as if s/he did not have a stigma
Concepts: Oppressed Minorities
Black, Hispanic, Asian-Pacific, and Native Americans are most clearly differentiated from other diadvantaged groups in the U.S. by their intense racial, ethnic, and political consciousness
the consciousness enhances self-appreciation and is experienced as racial or ethnic pride
the individuals who belong to these groups are influenced by factors uniquely associated with membership in the group
Theories: Children in Poverty
nearly one out of every four children under six years of age lives in poverty
minority children under six are much more likely to be poor than White children under six
many of these children are homeless or are in the child welfare system
Children in Poverty: Additional Disabilities
frequent relocations due to rejection, changes in family situation, return to family or foster care, agency procedures, and court decisions (sex and physical abuse more likely within foster care)
move through school systems making academic achievement challenging
changes in casework staff lead to discontinuity in relationships and failure to adequately track children
at age 18 public support may end and the relationships with long-term foster parents may abruptly end, leaving the youth with a sense of abandonment and few material resources
higher incidence of behavioral problems, drug and alcohol abuse, and entering the criminal justice system than children raised in their own families
Children in Poverty: Social Problems Correlated
mental and physical disability or illness
drug and alcohol abuse
family violence
low educational levels and unemployment
Children in Poverty: Social Problem Facts
fewer than one-third of all poor children under six live exclusively on welfare
more than half the poor children in the U.S. have at least one parent who is working
children living with single mothers are more likely to be poor
greater risk if impaired health
Theories: Lawrence Kohlberg – Theory of Moral Development( 1969)
Built on Piaget’s research on moral development
Theory or Moral Development: Building on Piaget’s Research
argued that children’s experiences shape their understanding of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality, and human welfare
determined the moral development was a process that takes an extended period of development
Theory of Moral Development: Moral Reasoning Theory
identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major levels
each level demonstrates a dramatic change in social-moral perspective of the individual
children and adults progress through the stages to a final stage
moral development takes place throughout the life span, and progress between the stages is linear
no stages can be skipped, and Kohlberg theorizes that progress between stages is largely contingent upon the availability of an individual role model who offers a model of the precepts of the next higher level
Six Stages of Moral Development: Stage I
the preconventional or primitive level
moral judgements are concrete and framed from an individual perspective
moral framework emphasizes following rule because rule-breaking may lead to punishment
the reasoning is largely ego-centric and does not include concern for others
Six Stages of Moral Development: Stage II
emphasizes moral reciprocity and focuses on the instrumental, pragmatic value of an action
individuals at stage II observe moral standards because it is in their interest to do so
they are able to justify retaliation as a form of justice
observing rules will lead to similar behaviors from others
represents behavior largely focused on following the rules only when it is in the immediate interests of the person
there is a mutual contractual texture to Stage II behavior
rule-following is instrumental and still based largely on externalities, though there is an understanding of conventional morality
Six Stages of Moral Development: Stage III
persons at this stage define what is right with reference to what is expected by people with whom they have close relationships
the emphasis is on stereotypic roles such as the good mother, father, or brother
being virtuous is defined through maintaining trusting and loyal relationships
Six Stages of Moral Development: Stage IV
authority and social order obedience driven, it is important to obey laws, dictums and social conventions becuase of their importance in maintaining a functioning society
moral reasoning is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage three
central ideal or ideals often prescribe what is right and wrong
if one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would – thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules
when someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong
culpability is thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains from the good ones
most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force
Six Stages of Moral Development: Stage V
the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights and values
such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community
laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts
those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “the greatest good for the greatest number of people”
this is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise
Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning
Six Stages of Moral Development: Stage VI
this stage is characterized as the post-conventional level
ethical reasoning is formed on the basis of universal general principles
ethical reasoning is understood in accordance with principles of justice
this stage rejects uniform applications of rules or norms
the level of moral judgement is rooted in the ethical fairness principles from which moral laws are created
laws are critically evaluated and judgements are made according to whether they conform to basic fairness principles
reasoning values human life and human welfare as first rank principles of existence
Theories: Carol Gilligan – Morality of Care
the feminist response to Kohlberg’s perspective on moral development
Morality of Care: In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (1982)
Gilligan notes that Kohlberg’s theories reflected research on males
Morality of Care: Gilligan’s Theory
morality of “care” reflects women’s experiences more accurately than one that emphasizes justice and rights
Morality of Care: Gilligan on Women’s Morality
reflects caring, responsibility, and nonviolence, while the morality of justice and rights emphasizes equality
another way to look at these differences is to view these two moralities as providing two distinct injunctions – the injunction not to treat other unfairly (justice) and the injunction not to turn away from someone in need (care)
care emphasizes interconnectedness and nurturing
an emphasis on justice emerges as a response to individualism and stresses individual anatomy
Morality of Care: Difference in Moral Orientation
explained by the dynamics of attachment relations
masculine identity formation requires individuation and separation from the mother
the separation leads to awareness of power differences between the child and adults, causing concern over inequalities
girls remained attached to mothers, are less aware of gender inequalities, and do not primarily focus on questions of fairness
other research suggesting that moral reasoning is not as neatly differentiated along gender lines as Gilligan finds
evidence suggests that both male and female morality structures involve concerns about both justice and care
