Human A&P Flashcards
Define anatomy & physiology.
Anatomy: study of structure.
Physiology: study of function.
What do you listen for when doing percussion?
Signs of abnormalities like pockets of fluid, air, or scar tissue.
Define dissection:
Carefully cutting & separating tissues to reveal their relationship.
Which 2 words mean “cutting apart” ?
Anatomy & dissection.
What’s the study of multiple species in order to examine similarities & differences & analyze evolutionary trends?
Comparative anatomy
What is the act of opening the body & taking a look inside to see what’s wrong & what could be done about it?
What was it then replaced with?
Exploratory surgery
Replaced w/ medical imaging
Define structure that can be seen w/ the naked eye by surface observation, radiology, or dissection? (Can be observed w/o magnification)
Gross anatomy
Define the microscopic observation of structures like tissues & organs?
Histology (microscopic anatomy)
What’s the microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease?
Histopathology
What’s the study of structure & function of individual cells?
Cytology
Define ultrastructure
Fine details of tissue & cell structure, down to the molecular level, revealed by electron microscope.
Define:
Neurophysiology
Endocrinology
Pathophysiology
-physiology of nervous system
-physiology of hormones
-mechanisms of disease
Define the study of how different species have solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, & reproduction?
Comparative physiology
Who is the Greek physician known as the father of medicine? What did he urge physicians to do?
Hippocrates
Urged physicians to stop attributing disease to activities of gods & demons & to seek natural causes.
Who was the 1st philosopher to write about anatomy & physiology? What were his beliefs?
Aristotle
Believed diseases & other natural events either had supernatural causes.
Who was the physician to Roman gladiators who wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient era?
Claudis Galen
Who was a well known Jewish physician who served to court in sultan, Saladin?
Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon)
Who designed scientific instruments like the compound microscope?
Robert Hooke
Who invented a simple microscope that was originally for examining the weave of fabrics?
Antony van Leeuwenhoek
What was the most important breakthrough in biomedical history?
Cell theory
What method refers less to observational procedures than to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, & honest analysis of one’s observations & conclusions?
Scientific method
What method is a process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations & predictions from them?
Inductive method
Which method involves an investigator who begins asking a question & formulating a hypothesis (educated speculation or possible answer)?
Hypothetico-deductive method
What’s an informed conjecture that’s capable of being tested & potentially falsified by experimentation/data collection?
Hypothesis
What’s defined by means that if we claim something’s scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong. If nothing can go wrong, it’s not scientific.
Falsifiability
How does hypothesis testing operate?
In cycles of conjecture & disproof until one is found that’s supported by evidence. Suggesting a method for answering a question.
What’s defined as the number of subjects (animals or people) used in a study?
Sample size
Which effect can have an undesirable effect on experimental results if we don’t control them?
Psychosomatic effect
How do we control experimenter bias?
Double-blind method.
What kind of testing can be applied to data?
Statistical testing
What’s defined as information that can be independently verified by any trained person?
Scientific fact
What’s the generalization about the predictable ways on how matter & energy behave?
Law of nature
What’s an explanatory statement that concisely summarizes the states of knowledge on a phenomenon & provides direction for further study? Derived from facts, laws, & confirmed hypotheses.
Theory
Who discovered Natural Selection & addressed issues of human evolution?
Charles Darwin
What’s the change in relative frequencies of alleles in a population over a period of time? The mechanism that produces adaptations in human form & function? Change in genetic composition of population of organisms.
Evolution
How does evolution work?
Through the principle of natural selection. Some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over competitors.
Natural forces promote what?
Reproductive success for some individuals than others in selection pressures.
What’s the evolutionary process leading to establishment of characteristics that favor survival & reproduction? (anatomy, physiology, behavior). Sensory process where receptor adjusts sensitivity or response to level of stimulation, like night vision. Cope w/ challenges of environment.
Adaptation
What kind of habitat affords greater safety from predators, less competition, & rich food supply of leaves, fruit, insects, & lizards?
Arboreal
List the hierarchy of complexity for humans
Atoms ->molecules -> organelles -> cells -> tissue -> organs -> organ systems -> organism
What’s a single, complete individual?
Organism
Define a group of organs w/ unique functions.
Organ system
What structure is composed of 2 or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function?
Organ
What’s a mass of similar cells & cell products that form a discrete region of an organ & performs specific function?
Tissue
What’s the smallest unit of an organism that carries out all basic like functions?
Cells
What are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out individual functions?
Organelles
Proteins, fats, & DNA are large molecules known as what?
Macromolecules
A molecule is a particle composed of at least 2 __, the smallest particles w/ unique chemical identities.
Atoms
Complex systems like the human body can be understood by studying simpler components called ____.
Reductionism
What complimentary theory defines humans being more than the sum of their parts? To treat not only the disease, but the whole person.
Holism
The ability to sense & react to stimuli is called:
Responsiveness or excitability
The tendency of maintaining relatively stable internal conditions in spite of greater changes in external environment is known as
Homeostasis
Development of relatively unspecialized cell or tissue into 1 w/ a more specific structure & function is known as
Differentiation
Sex, age, weight, diet, degree of physical activity, genetics, and environment are what?
Physiological variables
The internal state of the body is best described as a dynamic ___, in which there’s a certain __ __ or averages value for a given variable.
Equilibrium, set point
A self-corrective mechanism that underlies most homeostatis, body change is detected, & reponses are activated that reverse the change & restore stability & preserve normal body function is ____ feedback.
Negative
Because feedback mechanisms alter original changes that triggered them, they’re often called _____ loops.
feedback loops
What mechanism processes info, relates it to other available info, & makes decision about appropriate repsonse?
Integrating (control) center
What molecule, cell, or organ carries response to a stimulus? Carries final corrective action.
Effector
What feedback is self-amplifying cycle where change leads to even greater change in the SAME direction?
Positive
A physiological __ is a difference in chemical concentration, electrical charge, physical pressure, temperature, or other variable vice versa.
Gradient
Chemicals flown down ____ gradients. A difference in chemical concentration from one point to another, as on 2 sides of a plasma membrane.
concentration
Which book was codified in 1998 by an international committee of anatomists & approved by professional associations of anatomists in more than 50 countries?
Terminologia Anatomica
Terms coined from names of people called ___, afford little cues to what’s a structure or condition.
Eponyms
There are __ naturally occurring elements on earth, __ oh which play normal physiological roles in humans. 6 of them account for 98.5% of the body’s weight: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, & phosphorus.
91, 24
The remaining 12 elements collectively account for only 0.7% of body weight. They’re known as ____ elements.
Trace elements
What are inorganic elements that are extracted from soil by plants & passed up the food chain to humans & others?
Minerals
How much does each proton or neutron approximately weigh?
1 atomic mass unit (amu)
Around the nucleus are one or more clouds of ____, tiny particles w/ a single negative charge & very low mass.
Electrons
Electrons of the outermost shell, called ____ _____, determine the chemical bonding properties of an atom.
Valence electrons
Unstable isotopes are therefore called ____, & the process of decay is called ___.
Radiostopes, radioactivity
In high doses, ____ radiation is quickly fatal.
Ionizing
Each radioisotope has a characteristic physical ______, the time required for 50& of atoms to decay to a more stable isotope.
physical half-life
The _____ ______ of a radioisotope is the time required for half of it to disappear from the body.
biological half-life
Charged particles w/ unequal numbers of portons & electrons are known as
Ions
An ion w/ more electrons than protons & consequently a net negative charge:
An ion w/ more protons than electrons & consequently a net positive charge:
Anion
Cation
What’s a substance that ionizes in water & forms solutions capable of conducting electricity?
Electrolytes
What are unstable, highly reactive chemical particles w/ an odd number of electrons?
Free radicals
An ____ is a chemical that neutralizes free radicals.
antioxidant
What’s a chemical particle compared of 2 or more atoms united by a chemical bond?
Molecule
Molecules composed of 2 or more elements are called _____.
Compounds
The ___ ____ of a compound is the sum of the atomic weights of its atoms.
molecular weight
What’s a force that attracts 1 atom to another, such as their opposite charges or sharing electrons? A molecule is held together & molecules are attracted to one another by….
chemical bonds
Relatively weak attracting between an an anion & cation. Easily disrupted in water like salt. Which bond?
Ionic bond
Sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between nuclei. Which bond?
Covalent bond
Weak attraction between polarized molecules of same molecule. Easily disrupted by temperature & pH changes.
Hydrogen bond
Weak, brief attraction due to random disturbances in electron clouds of adjacent atoms. Weakest of all bonds individually, but can have strong side effects.
Van der Waals Force
A ____ consists of substances physically blended but not chemically combined.
mixture
The base unit of heat is the ___.
calorie
Most common ____ in the body mixtures of protein & water, such as albumin in blood plasma.
colloids
The blood in our blood plasma exemplify a ____.
Suspension
An ____ is a suspension of 1 liquid in another, like oil & vinegar.
emulsion
An ___ is a proton donor, a molecule releases a proton in water. A __ is a proton acceptor.
Acid, base
pH expresses what?
Acidity
Chemical solutions that resist changes in pH are called ____.
Buffers
List the different concentrations
Weight per volume
Percentage
Molarity
Milliequivalents per liter
Potential energy available in a system to do useful work is known as
Free energy
A ____reaction is a process when covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken.
chemical reaction
Course of chemical reaction is symbolized by ___ ____ that typically shows reactants on left, products on right..
chemical equation
In _____ reactions, a large molecule breaks down into 2 or more smaller ones.
decomposition
Which reaction can go either direction under different circumstances?
Reversible
In the absence of upsetting influences, reversible reactions exist in a state of ____, which the ratio of products to reactants is stable.
equilibrium
What’s a substance that temporarily binds to reactants, hold them in favorable position to react w/ each other, & may change shapes of reactants?
Catalysts
All chemical reactions in the body are collectively called _____. (has 2 divisions)
Metabolism
A chemical reaction when one or more electrons are removed from a molecule, lowering its free energy content; opposite of reduction & always linked to reduction reaction:
Oxidation
A chemical reaction when one or more electrons are added to a molecule, raising its free energy content; opposite of oxidation & always linked to oxidation reaction. Also treatment for restoring fractures to proper alignment:
Reduction
Which reaction has a net release of energy? The products have less total free energy than reactants did.
Exergonic reactions
Which reaction has a net input of energy? The products have more total free energy than reactants did.
Endergonic reactions
Which versatile atom serves as the basis of a wide variety of structures & has 4 valence electrons?
Carbon
Carbon backbones carry a variety of ___ ____ -small clusters of atoms that determine properties of organic molecule.
functional groups
What molecule consists of a long chain of identical subunits like protein, DNA, & starch?
Polymer
What has identical subunits of a larger molecule in the timer to polymer range? One subunit of an antibody molecule, composed of 4 polypeptides?
Monomer
Condensation is also know as what?
Dehydration synthesis
The opposite of dehydration is ____.
Hydrolysis
Name the hydrophilic organic compound of carbon & a 2:1 ratio of hydrogen & oxygen? Including sugar, starches, glycogen, & cellulose
Carbs
A simple sugar or sugar monomer; chiefly glucose, fructose, & galactose
Monosaccharide
A carb composed of 2 simple sugars joined by glycosidic bond: lactose, sucrose, & maltose.
Disaccharide
Polymer of simple sugar: glycogen, starch, & cellulose:
Polysaccharide
A molecule that’s both hydrophobic & hydrophilic:
Amphipathic
A ___ is a polymer of amino acids. Has __ amino acids.
protein
What causes a change in 3 dimensional conformation of a protein that destroys its enzymatic other other properties, caused by extreme temperature or pH?
Denaturation
What’s thin, flat, scaly shaped, & often w/ a bulge where nucleus is shaped like a sunny side up egg? Lines the esophagus & forms surface layer of skin.
Squamous
What’s squarish-looking/cube in frontal sections & about equal in height & width; like liver sells?
Cuboidal
What’s cellular shaped, distinctly taller than wide, like inner lining sells of stomach & intestines?
Columnar
Has multiple pointed processes projecting from body of cell, giving star=like shape. Cells bodies of many nerve cells.
Stellate
Round to oval shape, as in egg cells & white blood cells.
Spheroidal to ovoid
Disc-shaped, as in red blood cells
Discoidal
Spindle shaped; elongated w/ a thick middle & tapered ends, like smooth muscle cells.
Fusiform
What’s the most useful unit of measure designated for cell sizes?
Micrometer
Clear, featureless, gelatinous colloid where organelles & internal structures of cell are embedded.
Cytosol
