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how evolution works Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what are some differences between humans and some of our closest primate relatives (chimpanzees)

A

chimps:
- hair everywhere
- quadrupedal
- smaller brains
- simpler communication
- more advanced infants
- smaller brain:body ratio

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2
Q

why do humans have less hair than primates

A

adaptations to make our sweating an effective way to release heat

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3
Q

why do humans have an arched foot

A

for running ability

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4
Q

why do humans have a hyoid bone

A

for vocal speech production

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5
Q

why do humans have an opposable thumb

A

to carry things and make tools

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6
Q

T/F adaptations can be specific to local environments

A

TRUE

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7
Q

what are some byproducts that have been created as a result of human adaptations

A

shelter
family structures
food production systems
group systems/societies

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8
Q

describe the most important features that make up SCIENCE

A

a process
empirically verifiable information
system of hypothesis testing
experiments
updates to general understanding (public discourse)

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9
Q

T/F philosophy, induction, religion, math are all other knowledge productions

A

TRUE
induction is experience btw

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10
Q

what was the emission theory of vision

A

TRASHBIN THEORY where people believed that eyes send out invisible beams that reflect on everything to show an image of whats in front of you

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11
Q

what was the theory of spontaneous generation

A

TRASHBIN THEORY where people believed that living things could appear from nonliving things

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12
Q

how did the theory of spontaneous generation come to be, and why wasn’t it proven wrong

A

scientists had observations that went along with this theory and other similar theories, BUT THEY LACKED SCIENCE to be able to prove or disprove this theory with systematic testing of their hypotheses

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13
Q

why is newton creditted with disproving the emission theory of vision and not ibn al-haytham

A

there was no science when al-haytham disproved it, so there was no SPREADING OF INFO TO THE PUBLIC DISCOURSE

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14
Q

what step is missing in the method of science:
- observation
- questioning
- predictions
- experiment
- inferences
- sharing/replicating/concensus

A

between questioning and predictions, there are HYPOTHESIZING that has to happen.

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15
Q

what are the method steps of science

A

OQHPEISRC
our queen hears prince eric is sharing routine cuddles

observation
questioning
hypothesize
prediction
experiment
inference
sharing/replicating/concensus

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16
Q

what two things must be true of a hypothesis

A

it must be TESTABLE and FALSIFIABLE

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17
Q

T/F if the experiment doesn’t disprove the hypothesis, then it proves it

A

FALSE it only supports it, but does not show guaranteed proof that the hypothesis is true

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18
Q

what is a theory in general terms

A

a guess/tentative suggestion

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19
Q

what is a theory in science terms

A

a group of mutually consistent hypotheses that have withstood repeated attempts at rejection

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20
Q

what was redi’s experiment to refute the spontaneous theory of generation

A

REDI MEAT
jars with meat, half open/closed so maggots can lay eggs. maggots appeared from open jar not closed jar, so he concluded that they dont just spontaneously appear from meat.

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21
Q

t/f redi disproved the theory of spontaneous generation

A

FALSE he disproved that maggots spontaneously appear from meat, but cannot prove that the theory as a whole is false

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22
Q

what was needham’s experiment related to spontaneous generation

A

HAM NEEDS MORE BROTH
he boiled broth to kill anything that was already in it, but microbes appeared in both open and closed container.
he thought this proved spontaneity again

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23
Q

what was pasteur’s experiment related to spontaneous generation and the result

A

boiled broth, but this time used curved flask to show that when outside air couldn’t get in, the microbes did not appear. when outside air did get in, the microbes did appear.
THIS DISPROVED SPONTANEOUS GENERATION WITH A BOOK!

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24
Q

what is a peer review

A

an editor may send the manuscript of completed experiments and data to an expert in the subject to be reviewed for any suggests or things that were done wrong.

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25
Q

T/F all publications end up in general science journals

A

FALSE, there are some general science ones like Nature and Science, but others that are more specific in specialty journals like Current Biology and Evolution & Human Behavior

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26
Q

what was the early view about how the species were ordered called

A

the great chain of beings that was a ladder of intellect ending with angels and gods

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27
Q

T/F some early views of species included that they were immutable (fixed) and permanent and earth is not very old

A

TRUE these were common thoughts, but were later disproved

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28
Q

who were some prominent scientists before darwin and their beliefs

A

hutton & lyell thought earth must be really old
mary anning was a fossil hunter who believed in evolution

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29
Q

what did jean baptiste lamark believe in

A
  • external pressure will make an animal change during its lifetime
  • these traits are immediately passed down to the offspring
  • traits that help an organism survive will tend to persist
  • giraffe example
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30
Q

what is wrong about jean baptiste lamark’s theory

A

your acquired traits dont get immediately passed on to children
and he thought evolution was based on an end goal

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31
Q

what did malthus believe

A

species could out populate their resources.
populations can increase so rapidly, so why don’t the resources run out

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32
Q

who took a 5 year voyage around the world as a naturalist (collecting samples) set up by his father

A

charles darwin

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33
Q

T/F darwin finds fossils of marine animals in the mountains

A

TRUE in the andes

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34
Q

T/F darwin found fossils of giant armadillos

A

TRUE

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35
Q

what did darwin realize about islands

A

that the distribution of animals on the islands didn’t match what was found on the main land
- different variations of animals
- missing animals

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36
Q

what was the finch experiment that darwin studied

A

this was where darwin came up with evolution by natural selection.
- some finches on the galapagos islands were very similar but still partially different from the ones of the mainland
- he studied their beak widths, lengths, and feet size
- concluded that since they couldn’t cross breed, they must have had traits develop independently based on their survival needs that evolved separately

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37
Q

what is natural selection

A

theory that natural pressures from environment can cause a species to change without an end goal

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38
Q

what is artificial selection

A

humans will select traits that are beneficial to us, so we influence the breeding and reproduction of these traits in organisms

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39
Q

who was alfred wallace

A

he also thought of the idea of natural selection but sent it to darwin, who then said hey i also found this so they co-published this theory together

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40
Q

what is the main difference between natural and artificial selection

A

artificial selection has a main GOAL, whereas natural selection does not have any goal

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41
Q

what is evolution

A

the change in frequency of a trait over time

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42
Q

what are darwins three postulates called

A
  1. struggle for existence
  2. variation in features and survival
  3. variation is heritable
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43
Q

what does darwin’s “struggle for existence” postulate mean

A

populations have the ability to grow exponentially, but NATURAL CHECKS keep the population steady
- predators
- sickness
- food access
so population size remains about stable

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44
Q

what does darwin’s “variation in features and survival” postulate mean

A

traits will vary, and the most advantageous traits will be more likely to produce offspring

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45
Q

what does darwin’s “variation is heritable” postulate mean

A

offspring will inherit traits that make them more likely to survive
disadvantageous traits will likely be weeded out bc adults wont even survive long enough to reproduce or future generations with that trait wont

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46
Q

what are the three types of natural selection and what do they mean

A

directional: population traits shift in one direction (whole population changes from old to new)
stabilizing: averaging traits and eliminating outliers
disruptive: something disrupts the population so traits split with some getting one and some getting another trait

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47
Q

what is a better saying than “Survival of the Fittest” and why

A

reproduction of the fittest because a better fit to the environment will be more likely to reproduce and continue this trait, survival is part but not for the population as a whole

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48
Q

T/F natural selection is a mechanism that affects the species as a whole

A

FALSE natural selection only operates on a singular level, from parent to offspring, not across an entire species or population

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49
Q

T/F evolution is linear

A

FALSE if you think of a tree with many branches and roads going off of one to make others with branches, it would not be directly turning one species into another

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50
Q

T/F natural selection is a moral prescription

A

FALSE natural selection is facts
it is not good/bad should/shouldn’t debate

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51
Q

what is naturalistic fallacy

A

believing that everything that is nature or happens naturally is good and should happen that way
ex of when this is wrong: poison ivy is natural, but it obviously not good

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52
Q

T/F survival of the fittest is wrong because survival is only useful if it leads to reproduction

A

TRUE the phrase should be reproduction of the fittest because it is not useful if not producing offspring

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53
Q

T/F some species are more evolved than others

A

FALSE at this moment in time, all species are the exact same amount of “evolved”, but some populations had different adaptations than others that allowed them to be more progressed/developed/capable of language and concepts

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54
Q

T/F humans are evolutionarily unique

A

FALSE they are different and unusual than other organisms, but this is not because of a change in evolution

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55
Q

T/F natural selection is goal-oriented

A

FALSE it does not have a goal and will continue on and on

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56
Q

T/F natural selection is random

A

FALSE the mutations are random, but natural selection itself is not random

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57
Q

T/F all scientists believe that natural selection is real

A

TRUE they do not fight if it is true or not, but they can sometimes fight about the details
natural selection is overwhelmingly supported because of the mass amount of evidence that has not disproved it

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58
Q

T/F evolution is done

A

FALSE it will never end

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59
Q

T/F reproductive success is leaving more copies of your genes in subsequent generations that others do

A

TRUE and reproductive success is NOT having as many kids as possible
reproductive success just means that a parent must transfer their genes to their offspring, who will in the future also become parents

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60
Q

T/F natural selection favors what is good for the species

A

FALSE it is based on an individual level of adaptations for one individual to be able to successfully reproduce

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61
Q

T/F “fit” means traits that will help an individual progress into the next generation and have offspring

A

TRUE it is not solely about being the strongest or biggest, because it may be more beneficial to be small to hide or less colorful to camouflage in order to get to reproduction

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62
Q

what is a complex adaptation

A

adaptations that are too complex to just appear, but will develop through multiple adaptations over time
ex: an eye formation from nothing couldn’t just appear in one lifetime, it needed to have a crevice then start the formation which would take many many generations to do

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63
Q

T/F adaptations are suboptimal

A

TRUE in many cases, the result of adaptations is not the PERFECT DESIGN, but it works to get the job done and was how it adapted over time, without a sought out plan to come from it

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64
Q

what are selection pressures

A

anything that influences the survival or reproduction in a proportion of a population

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65
Q

what is optimality and why does natural selection produce it

A

optimality is a result that is the best result given the least amount of energy put in. think like being lazy and not studying for a test, then the highest score you can get is a 50%, but you do get the 50% so you got the highest possible for you to get as a result of the lowest energy being put in
natural selection produces optimality because it doesn’t have a goal, so it isn’t able to put in loads of effort all at once to adapt to form a perfectly designed trait

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66
Q

what is an obligate adaptation and an example

A

a trait that is expressed in the same way regardless of the environment
ex: everyone has an achilles heel and eyes, so this won’t be affected by whether you live in a brighter or darker place

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67
Q

what is facultative adaptation and an example and the nickname

A

a trait that requires input from the environment (an if-then interaction)
ex: if there is repeated contact on the skin with a rough surface, then calluses will form to protect the skin from this pain again
nickname: phenotypic plasticity

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68
Q

what are three things that darwin could not answer about genetics

A
  • where does variation come from
  • how does inheritance of traits work
  • how is variation maintained if natural selection eliminates it
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69
Q

what is blending inheritance

A

each parent contributes equally to the offspring

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70
Q

why is blending inheritance less than favorable

A

some advantageous traits will be diluted bc there is a chance that the offspring wont inherit it if only one parent has it

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71
Q

what did mendel do

A

he figured out how inheritance works

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72
Q

what plant did mendel use to figure out inheritance

A

green and yellow pea plants that could be wrinkly or smooth as well

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73
Q

what color and texture was dominant for the pea plants

A

yellow was dominant and smooth was dominant

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74
Q

T/F a yellow and green plant bred together would create a hybrid yellow-green colored pea plant

A

FALSE they don’t mix, it would be either yellow or green based on dominance

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75
Q

mendel’s f1 generation (first offsprings) were always what color

A

they were always the dominant yellow because the parents were YY and yy so always Yy which is yellow

76
Q

what percent of mendel’s f2 generation (second offsprings) were yellow

A

75% were yellow, 25% were green

77
Q

what were the names of mendel’s three postulates and their meanings

A
  1. particles of inheritance appear in pairs: one particle from each parent (particle is known as gene now)
  2. genetic information is inherited from both parents, but only one parent’s info is expressed for each trait
  3. during meiosis, the expressed particle is randomly chosen from the two parents
78
Q

know how to do punnett squares!

A

yay!

79
Q

what is difference between genotype and phenotype

A

genotype is like the alleles that are present like YY or yy or Yy
phenotype is the physical characteristics that are expressed from the given genotype (yellow, green, tall, smooth, round)

80
Q

what is mendel’s law of dominance

A

dominant allele is always expressed if present, recessive allele is only expressed if homozygous (both recessive)

81
Q

what is mendel’s law of independent assortment

A

inheritance of one trait doesn’t affect inheritance of another (there are some exceptions to this law)

82
Q

what is a genome

A

the complete DNA sequence of a set of chromosomes

83
Q

how many pairs of chromosomes do humans have

A

23

84
Q

what does it mean that humans have diploid chromosomes

A

there are two of each chromosome that are paired up

85
Q

what is a gene locus

A

the spot on the chromosome where the gene is found

86
Q

what is an allele

A

a gene variation
ex: the gene for color can be an allele sequence that makes it yellow (Y) or an allele sequence that makes it green (y)

87
Q

what is mitosis

A

cell division of two somatic parent cells into two identical diploid daughter cells

88
Q

what is meiosis

A

cell division of two diploid parents into 2 diploid daughters into 4 haploid gamete daughters (sex cells)

89
Q

homozygous

A

same allele from both parents (whether dominant or recessive)

90
Q

heterozygous

A

different alleles from both parents

91
Q

what is a haploid cell

A

they only contain one copy of each chromosome instead of a diploid that has two copies

92
Q

T/F a source of variation during meiosis occurs during recombination/crossing over of DNA strands

A

TRUE this is how the genetical material is exchanged between partner chromosomes

93
Q

T/F all genes on a chromosome will have an equally likely chance of crossing over or cross-linking

A

FALSE if the loci are closer or matching, they will have a higher chance of linkage across and recombining there

94
Q

if the two genotypes given from parents are AA and aa, and we say that the recombination rate is HIGH, then what changes with the initial probability of genotypes for the offspring

A

since recombination rate is high, the genes are more likely to cross-link into genotypes of Aa and aA which would be heterozygous with the dominant trait being expressed. this means that there is an even smaller chance of getting homozygous recessive aa to have that recessive trait expressed.

95
Q

who discovered DNA

A

wilkins and rosalind frankin did all the research to figure out the structure of DNA was a double helix, but Watson and Crick stole this data and published it so they get all the recognition unfortunately

95
Q

what is DNA made of

A

sugar and phosphate in the backbone, and they are covalently linked to nucleotide bases ACGT

95
Q

T/F chromosomes are only made of DNA

A

FALSE they are also made of proteins

96
Q

what does the base T bond to

A

A

97
Q

what does the base C bond to

A

G

98
Q

in RNA, what does the base A bond to

A

U

99
Q

in RNA, what does the base G bond to

A

C

100
Q

T/F DNA strands are complimentary

A

TRUE

101
Q

what does the helicase enzyme do

A

it helps open the DNA into a fork so that replication can occur

101
Q

T/F DNA replication involves conservation replication

A

FALSE it is semiconservative replication where the template strand is split and new complimentary strands are made to each of those

102
Q

T/F mutations all have the same bad effect on the gene

A

FALSE mutations can be good bad or neutral, and there are a few types of mutations that will have different effects on the cells

103
Q

what are the two functions of DNA

A
  1. regulatory sequences
  2. to make RNA that make proteins
104
Q

what is the central dogma

A

dna - rna - proteins

105
Q

what part of the central dogma makes the phenotype

A

the proteins lead to the observable phenotype

106
Q

how does DNA turn to RNA

A

transcription

107
Q

how does RNA turn to protein

A

translation

108
Q

name the 3 differences between DNA and RNA

(hint: strand, backbone, bases)

A

RNA is single stranded, DNA is double
RNA has an extra oxygen in its backbone than DNA does
RNA uses uracil not thymine

109
Q

what is transcription simple steps

A
  • occurs in the nucleus
  • DNA is opened up at the starting codon of a gene
  • complimentary base pairs get connected to form mRNA that uses U instead of T
110
Q

what is codon

A

set of 3 bases

111
Q

how does the RNA get to the ribosome for translation

A

the mRNA transports it out of the nucleus to the ribosome to start translation

112
Q

what is translation simple steps

A
  • mRNA moves to ribosome
  • tRNAs are specific RNAs that are trying to match anticodons to form a polypeptide chain
  • when the right tRNA matches with the mRNA sequence, the amino acid attaches to the chain
113
Q

what is intron

A

non coding section of DNA sequence

114
Q

what is exon

A

coding for proteins section of DNA sequence

115
Q

what are alternative splicings

A

when introns are spliced out, sometimes exons can also be spliced out too which would make an alternative mRNA to be turned into a protein

116
Q

what determines the structure and function of a protein

A

the specific amino acid sequence

117
Q

what percent of the human genome codes for proteins

A

1.5%

118
Q

what is the sequence called at the beginning of a gene that uses the activator, promoter, and repressor binding sites?

A

regulatory sequences

119
Q

what does transcription occur (related to activator and repressor sites)

A

when the activator is bound and the repressor is unbound

120
Q

what binds to the promoter region to begin transcription

A

RNA polymerase

121
Q

what is classical/mendelian genetics

A

studies how traits are passed down through pedigree analysis

122
Q

what is population genetics

A

examines the variation within and between populations

123
Q

what is phylogenetics

A

determines the evolutionary relationship between species to understand the evolutionary history of life on earth

124
Q

what is behavioral genetics

A

studies how animal behaviors are influenced by their genetics

125
Q

what is the nature vs. nurture debate

A

do the genes or environment play a bigger role in forming who you are

126
Q

what is PKU

A

the inability to metabolize phenylalanine

127
Q

how do you calculate the frequency of a dominant allele

A

p = freq(AA) + (1/2 * freq(Aa))

128
Q

how do you calculate the frequence of a recessive allele

A

q = freq(aa) + (1/2 * freq(Aa))

129
Q

what is the relationship between p and q

A

p + q = 1

130
Q

what does hardy weinberg equilibrium mean

A

if there are no forces acting on a population, then no evolution will occur and the traits will reach an equilibrium

131
Q

what are the 3 individual equations and the overall equation that relates the p and q to frequency in hardy weinberg equation

A

freq(aa) = q^2
freq(AA) = p^2
freq(Aa) = 2pq
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 IF EVOLUTION IS NOT HAPPENING

132
Q

what is microevolution

A

small changes in a species (allele frequencies change)

133
Q

what is macroevolution

A

large changes over many generations to a species (or new species emerge)

134
Q

what are the four forces of evolution

A
  1. mutation
  2. gene flow
  3. genetic drift
  4. natural selection
135
Q

what is a mutation

A

a change in DNA as a variation that natural selection might act upon

136
Q

T/F mutations are the only forces of evolution that can create novel (new) variation

A

TRUE it is the only one that can create new traits that weren’t previously there before

137
Q

what is gene flow

A

any movement of genetic information from one population to another

138
Q

what is genetic drift

A

changes in allele frequencies based on chance

139
Q

what is the bottleneck effect

A

a subcategory of genetic drift where a population is drastically reduced in size so the genetic variation is a lot smaller

140
Q

what is the founders effect

A

a subcategory of genetic drift where a few members of a population leave and create a new population where everyone is now related

141
Q

what syndromes can appear as a result of the founders effect

A

ellis-van creveld syndrome where there is dwarfism and extra phalanges
- found in many amish communities

142
Q

what does natural selection produce that the other forces of evolution do not

A

adaptations during the one lifetime

143
Q

T/F natural selection leads to differential reproductive success

A

TRUE which means that those individuals are more likely to leave more offspring than individuals that don’t have natural selection adaptations to their current environment

144
Q

T/F most populations are in disequilibrium

A

TRUE most populations are still in flux and it takes a lot of time to reach equilibrium

145
Q

T/F speciation is an event

A

FALSE it is a process

146
Q

what is a species

A

a defined group of organisms that are similar to each other and distinguished from other groups

147
Q

what is the biological species concept

A

species are reproductively isolated and naturally bred populations

148
Q

what is a prezygotic barrier

A

things that prevent reproduction from occurring between species in the first place
ex: live in different place, one is nocturnal, different mating behaviors, different shaped sex organs, incompatible sperm and egg

149
Q

what is a postzygotic barrier

A

things that prevent reproduction from occurring after copulation
ex: hybrid inviability (zygotes can’t develop to maturity) and hybrid sterility (zygotes can’t form gametes bc they are sterile)

150
Q

what is the ecological species concept

A

the species are not reproductively isolated, but the hybrid version is not “fit” to survive in the environment

151
Q

what is the reinforcement portion of the ecological species concept

A

natural selection will prefer to find barriers like pre and post zygotic ones to prevent the parents from producing the unfit hybrid offsprings

152
Q

what is the character displacement portion of the ecological species concept

A

competition over food and mates increases, so the morphological differences between the first and second species will increase

153
Q

what are the three main theories for how speciation occurs (how a new species arises)

A

allopatric, parapatric, and sympatric

154
Q

what is allopatric speciation

A

a geographic barrier is present that splits one species so they adapt separately and form different species

155
Q

what is parapatric speciation

A

there is a partial separation of the species, so there is a lot of reduced gene flow with only some hybrid zones

156
Q

what is sympatric speciation

A

there is no isolation, but genetic mutations or niches may make the species diverge into a new one with some remaining in the old one

157
Q

what is a niche in ecology

A

a way of making a living
- food eaten
- time of day active
- acquiring food

158
Q

what is adaptive radiation

A

when a single animal/plant diversifies to fill many niches

159
Q

what is anagenesis

A

when a species turns into another species directly

160
Q

what is cladogenesis

A

a species splits into the same one and another one branches off

161
Q

what does the tree of life tell us

A
  • common ancestry
  • time
162
Q

what is the naming sections of taxonomy from largest category to smallest

A

domain
kingdom
phylum
class
order
family
genus
species

mnemonic:
dom the
king
purchased
cats
on
friday
+ genus + species

163
Q

which two classifications are always italicized

A

genus and species

164
Q

what classification is always lowercase

A

species

165
Q

what two classifications do you have to put together when referring to an organism

A

genus and species
can’t just put the species

166
Q

T/F the more shared names means the organisms are more closely related

A

TRUE if you share 2 names with frogs and 6 names with turtles, you are more related to turtles

167
Q

what is the class, order, family, genus, and species for humans

A

Mammalia, Primates, Hominidae, Homo, H. sapiens

168
Q

what is the genus for chimps and bonobos

A

Pan

169
Q

what is science uses the tree of living organisms

A

phylogeny

170
Q

what level of classification is hominoid and what animal does it include

A

this is a superfamily and it includes apes

171
Q

be able to tell where the last common ancestor is for a tree of life

A

ok!

172
Q

T/F if you mirror a tree of life, you just messed it up

A

FALSE it doesn’t matter the specific side just that the connections stay the same

173
Q

what is another name for the tree of life diagram

A

cladogram

174
Q

what is a clade

A

a group of organisms that includes a single ancestor and all of its descendants (aka monophyletic group)
* make sure you can find this on a cladogram

175
Q

what is humans closest relative

A

chimps & bonobos

176
Q

what are homologies/homologous traits

A

similarities that are present due to descent from a common ancestor

177
Q

be able to construct your own cladogram

A

yes sir

178
Q

what are homoplasies/analogous traits

A

similarities produced by convergent evolution
- traits that have a common function but are not inherited from a common ancestor

179
Q

where are homoplasies most likely to be seen

A

natural selection favors similar traits in similar environments, so this is where more homoplasies might occur

180
Q

what is a primitive trait

A

the last common ancestor had it and passed it down to this species

181
Q

what is a derived trait

A

traits that developed after the last common ancestor split

182
Q

T/F being hairless is a primitive trait for humans

A

FALSE being hairless is a derived trait which can be seen because our closest relatives that came from the same common ancestor are all not hairless

183
Q

if the organism’s line on the cladogram doesn’t reach to the end of where the time line is, what does this mean

A

they are extinct

human bio, behavior, & evolution (4 decks)

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