How does economic change influence patterns of social inequality in places 5.3

Question 1

How can social inequality be measured?

Answer 1

Quality of life and standard of living

Question 2

What is quality of life?

Answer 2

The extent to which people’s needs and desires are met. This can be seen in areas such as the treatment of people. It is social, psychological and physical

Question 3

What is meant by the term standard of living?

Answer 3

The ability to access services and goods, this includes basics such as food and water

Question 4

How can a raised income affect standard of life and quality of life?

Answer 4

Higher incomes tend to offer a greater choice of education, diet, housing etc but can lead to a lower quality of life e.g. longer hours at works, longer commute, migration away from family etc.

Question 5

What is meant by the term deprivation?

Answer 5

Refers to a general lack of resources and opportunities. Is used in the context of a low standard of life and quality of life

Question 6

How can deprivation be measured?

Answer 6

In the UK the Index of Multiple Deprivation is used. Seven factors are used to give an overall measure; income, employment, health, etc

Question 7

What physical indicators are there of deprivation?

Answer 7

Quality of housing, level of pollution, incidence of litter, graffiti, vandalism

Question 8

What economic indicators are there of deprivation?

Answer 8

Access to leisure services, access to employment, levels of income, percentage of lone-parent families

Question 9

What social indicators are there of deprivation?

Answer 9

Fear of crime, incidence of crime, % on free school meals, standards of health and access to health facilities, standards of education, % on state benefits

Question 10

Describe the cycle of deprivation

Answer 10

Poverty (low wages or unemployment) leads to poor living conditions ( poor accommodation/ overcrowding) leads to ill health (stress or strain) can lead to poorer education and therefore poor skills. It is a cycle

Question 11

How can income define poverty?

Answer 11

Absolute poverty is defined as earning under $1.25/day. Below this, a person cannot afford to purchase the minimum amount of food and non-food essentials e.g. clothes. The use of purchasing power is important as the cost of obtaining a particular good or service can vary from one country to another

Question 12

What is relative poverty?

Answer 12

It is a measure that relates the level of poverty to distribution of income. For the UK the relative poverty level in 60% of the median household income

Question 13

What is the Gini coefficient?

Answer 13

It is a technique that can be used to measure levels of income inequality within countries. It is defined as ratio with values between 0-1.
The lower the value the more equal the income distribution

Question 14

How can housing indicate social inequality?

Answer 14

Being able to afford accommodation of an adequate standard is closely related to income. At all scales social inequality it evident in the type and quality of housing people occupy.

Question 15

How is housing tenure related to social inequality?

Answer 15

In ACs housing ownership is completed through mortgages. Charities and housing associations provide subsidised accommodation for rent. In LIDCs however housing tenure is complex, esp in slums

Question 16

What is formal / informal education?

Answer 16

Formal education is provided by schools, colleges, etc.
Informal education is gained from doing something in the home or workplace.
The acquisition of skills can be underestimated if only the formal qualifications are measured. This is particularly true when studying EDCs or LIDCs
Education can reinforce social inequality norms

Question 17

How can social inequality be reflected in ill-health

Answer 17

The association is strong and reflects a number of influences e.g. number of healthcare professionals per 1000 people. Access to health care and levels of ill-health are closely associated with social inequality.
Can also be associated with access to clean water, effective sanitation, quality of diet etc.
Can also reflect social behavious e.g. drinking smoking vaccination

Question 18

What inequalities in health are there in the UK?

Answer 18

Depending on where you live, provision through NSH varies. In part these differences may reflect the priorities of Health Care Trusts and differences in morbidity and life expectancy

Question 19

How can employment show inequalities?

Answer 19

Generally the case that rural areas have average incomes below those in towns and cities. In urban areas in LIDCs and EDCs millions people work in the informal sector

Question 20

Why does wealth affect social inequality?

Answer 20

The ability to purchase goods and services is fundamental to social well-being. Everywhere low incomes are linked to factors such as low health. The lack of formal qualifications and low skill sets are major obstacles to raising income.

Question 21

How does cost of living affect wealth and social inequalities?

Answer 21

If a person’s income rises, but increases in the cost of food, housing, clothes outstrip the additional income, then that person is relatively less well-off. A key factor is disposable income, the amount left over after essentials

Question 22

How does quality of housing affect social inequality?

Answer 22

The smaller the income of a family, the less choice over housing they have. Poor quality housing and overcrowding can create ill health. These conditions occur when demand exceeds supply. In LIDCs and some EDCs millions of people have little choice but to live in slum housing.
Often because of rapid urbanisation authorities are overwhelmed by the scale of demand and lack resources to build decent housing

Question 23

How can housing create inequalities in ACs?

Answer 23

When the cost of housing inflates at a faster rate than wages, those with lower income can find themselves excluded from the housing market. This is also a cause of social inequality in rural regions. The rise in second-home ownership and migration of wealthy people into the villages and small towns of the countryside have raised property prices beyond the reach of many young families

Question 24

How is health a cause of social inequality?

Answer 24

Within a local area some groups e.g. the elderly have limited mobility which restricts their access to GPs and primary health care.
In rural areas where health services are widely dispersed, accessing medical care can be an issue for households without access to a car or public transport

Question 25

Why does education cause social inequality?

Answer 25

Illiteracy excludes people from accessing education and skills training and therefore reduces employment opportunities. Accessing even basic education can be a major challenge in rural LIDCs

Question 26

How is access to services a cause of social inequality on an international scale?

Answer 26

Number of doctors per 1000 people in Norway is 4 whilst in an EDC like Kenya is it well below 1

Question 27

What are the patterns of social inequality relating to access to services on a national scale?

Answer 27

Most countries display inequalities between regions. People living in core regions such as most capital cities where wealth and investment are high, tend to have good access to services, whereas the peripheral regions suffer from limited access

Question 28

What factors influence access to services?

Answer 28

Number of services
How easy it is to get to the service e.g. quality and quantity of transport links
Social and economic factors e.g. age gender income etc

Question 29

What service shows clear inequalities?

Answer 29

Limited access to the internet. A digital divide exists in terms of owning equipment to be online e.g. mobile phone and quality e.g. (speed and band width) of a connection.
Although in nearly all countries investments in broadband are growing. In some EDCs and LIDCs mobile phone technology improves lives and reduces inequalities. The growth in satellite technologies removes the need to set up copper cables with solar-powered recharging. Even remote places can become linked in.
Inequalities can persist when authorities restrict access to internet e.g. China

Question 30

What is the global shift?

Answer 30

A consequence of globalisation. It refers to the relocation of manufacturing production on a global scale. Fifty years ago manufacturing was concentrated in western Europe and North America. From the 1980s the NIDL gathered pace

Question 31

What is the impact of economic restructuring?

Answer 31

The loss of employment in the primary and secondary sectors as the comparative advantage of ACs in primary and secondary activities declined. ACs transformed into post-industrial societies in which most people worked in the tertiary and quaternary sector

Question 32

Describe the effect of positive economic change on a place

Answer 32

Expansion of local job opportunities- Inflow of businesses and capital to satisfy increased local demand (secondary and tertiary development)- Substantial rise in per capita incomes- Higher tax base increases local government spending power- Improvement of physical and cultural infrastructure- Establishment of large manufacturing plants

Question 33

What are the positive impacts of economic change in ACs?

Answer 33

Cheaper imports of all relatively labour-intensive products can keep cost of living down and lead to a buoyant retail sector
Greater efficiency apparent in surviving outlets. This can release labour for higher productivity
Growth in LIDCs may lead to a demand for exports from ACs
Promotion of labour market flexibility and efficiency, greater worker mobility to area with relative scarcities of labour should be good for the country
Greater industrial efficiency should lead to development of new technologies, promotion of entrepreneurship and should attract foreign investment
Loss of mining and manufacturing industries can lead to improved environmental quality

Question 34

What are the negative impacts of economic change in ACs?

Answer 34

Rising job exports leads to inevitable job losses. Competition-driven changes in technology add to this
Job losses are often of unskilled workers
Big gaps develop between skilled and unskilled workers
Employment gains from new efficiencies will only occur if industrialised countries can keep their wage demands fown
Job losses are invariably concentrated in certain areas and certain industries. This can lead to deindustrialisation and structural unemployment in certain regions
Branch plants are particularly vulnerable as in times of economic recession they are the first to close, often with large numbers of job losses

Question 35

What are the positive impacts of economic change in EDCs and LIDCs

Answer 35

Higher export-generated income promotes export-led growth- thus promotes investment in productive capacity. Potentially lead to a multiplier effect on national economy
Can trickle down to local areas with many new highly paid jobs
Can reduce negative trade balances
Can lead to exposure to new technology, improvement of skills and labour productivity
Employment growth in relatively labour-intensive manufacturing spreads wealth and does redress global injustice

Question 36

What are the negative impacts of economic change in EDCs and LIDCs?

Answer 36

Unlikely to decrease inequality as jobs tend to be concentrated in core regions of urban areas. May promote in-migration
Disruptive social impacts e.g. role of TNCs potentially exploitative and may lead to sweatshops. Also branch plants ay move on in LIDCs too, leading to instability
Can lead to overdependence on narrow economic base
Can destabilise food supplies, as people give up agriculture
Environmental issue associated with over-rapid industrialisation
Health and safety issues because of tax legislation

Question 37

How has comparative advantage impacted places?

Answer 37

Some places have built on existing high-tech reputation such as Cambridge, while others have developed this. Firms have specialised in areas where they have a comparative advantages. In manufacturing this has often meant specialist high-tech industries, aerospace, pharmaceuticals.

Question 38

What is the role of Birmingham Research Park in Birmingham?

Answer 38

It is a joint venture between the University of Birmingham and Birmingham City Council. It is designed to attract research-led companies wishing to work in partnership with academic staff. It is an initiative to provide job opportunities as part of the restructuring of Birmingham to include greater emphasis on the knowledge economy

Question 39

What is the Kondratieff cycle?

Answer 39

Roughly 50 year cycles of growth and decline have characterised the capitalist wrold since 1750s. These cycles of growth and stagnation have been linked with technological innovation with new industries providing the basis for a boom. Once the new technology is no longer “new” fewer opportunities for growth exist and boom is followed by recession.

Question 40

How is there inequalities in a economic boom?

Answer 40

Technological innovation is not evenly distributed. Centers of innovation and their inhabitants often benefit from above average economic growth. Within these centers or core regions the multiplier effect is strong. The greater economic opportunities available in core regions help to explain the higher standard of living found there.
Explanations tend to focus on the role of education, government and social organisations.

Question 41

How are there inequalities in an economic recession?

Answer 41

Some people are able to cope with a recession more than others. In general, the more skilled someone is the more employment opportunities they are likely to have. Households tend to cut back on spending on non-essentials such as leisure and entertainment. This can result in fewer jobs in service activities such as bars or restaurants.

Question 42

How is Silicon Valley important for technological innovation?

Answer 42

It is home to many of the worlds largest high-tech corporations.
Stanford University has close links with most of the research being carried out and offers a regular supply of high-quality graduates. In additions law firms specialising in patent and copyright laws have clustered in Silicon Valley also offering opportunities for those relevant skills

Question 43

What inequalities are there in Silicon Valley?

Answer 43

Many production line workers are not paid more than states minimum wage and the manufacture of some computers components involves exposure to toxic chemicals which pose health risks.

Question 44

What methods can governments use to tackle social inequality?

Answer 44

Taxation, subsidies, planning, law and education

Question 45

How can governments use taxation to tackle social inequality?

Answer 45

Income tax is often used by governments to redistribute wealth from more prosperous to less prosperous groups, and so create a fairer society. Most governments have progressive tax systems where the better-off pay a larger proportion of their incomes in tax. Essential items such as food may be exempt from tax. This benefits poorer groups that spend a larger percentage of their income on food.

Question 46

How can governments use subsidies to tackle social inequality?

Answer 46

Governments also try to reduce inequalities by giving subsidies to poorer groups. Children in poorer families may get free school meals, clothing allowances and help with university fees. Pensioners may get subsidies for fuel and transport. Other subsidies may include free child care for single parents. Low wage earners, unemployed workers and those with long-term disabilities are entitled to benefits.

Question 47

How can governments use planning to tackle social inequalities?

Answer 47

Governments, charities and housing agencies often give priority to upgrading housing and services in the poorest areas. Planning is often organised geographically and targeted at the most deprived areas which vary in scale from neighbourhoods to entire regions

Question 48

How can governments use laws to tackle social inequality?

Answer 48

Legislation exists which outlaws discrimination on racial, ethnic, gender and age criteria and aims to give equal opportunities to all groups. The poorest groups of workers are protected by minimum-wage legislation.

Question 49

How can governments use education to tackles social inequality?

Answer 49

Governments often provide funding for training and upgrading skills in order to raise skill levels and qualifications, improve employment prospects and boost economic growth. Education programmes designed to improve personal health (e.g. diet, obesity, smoking) are often targeted at the poorest groups in society

Question 50

Describe government spending in 2016

Answer 50

£760 billion
20% is on pensions
18% is on health
15% is on welfare
12% is on education
35% remainder is on stuff like transport defence international development etc

Question 51

What are pensions in the UK like?

Answer 51

The age at which people can withdraw their pension is rising. Some of the poorest members of society rely on state pensions.
There tends to be a disproportionate number of these people living in inner cities and this contributes to high levels of multiple deprivation these.
Many retirees also own their own homes outright and have benefited from house price inflation, which increases their wealth

Question 52

What is health care like in the UK?

Answer 52

It is provided by a combination of government and private organisations. People pay for the NHS through the taxation system.
Language and cultural barriers and the role and status of women have been obstacles to recently arrived migrants accessing health care. Within some groups e.g. South Asian, fears about immunisation and a lack of resistance to childhood diseases are unprotected against common diseases such as measles.
There is a hierarchy in he provision of health care from the GP surgery through to specialist units treating rare diseases. As medical care has become more technological, it has become concentrated in fewer but larger facilities

Question 53

What are rural services like in the UK?

Answer 53

Key settlement policy. If a service is supported by a critical mass of people or threshold then it would be sustainable. However as improvements in personal mobility have taken place many rural residents no longer rely on exclusively their nearest key settlement. They often combine trips for employment and shopping
The availability of home delivery of services by food retailers also provides other options