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Hormones Flashcards

1
Q

What are endocrine glands?

A

Organs or groups of cells that synthesize and secrete hormones into the bloodstream; they are always ductless.

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2
Q

How do exocrine glands differ from endocrine glands?

A

Exocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts for short-distance hormone delivery.

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3
Q

What is a hormone?

A

A chemical secreted from an endocrine gland or cell that travels via the bloodstream to trigger a specific response in a target cell.

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4
Q

What are the patterns of hormone production?

A
  1. Chronic (constitutive) – e.g., thyroid hormones
  2. Acute (stimulated) – e.g., insulin
  3. Cyclic (pulsatile) – e.g., growth hormone, follows biological rhythms
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5
Q

Can hormone production patterns vary?

A

Yes, for example, thyroid hormones are usually chronic, but during pregnancy, they can become acute.

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6
Q

What are the three main classifications of hormones?

A
  1. Peptide hormones
  2. Steroid hormones
  3. Amine hormones
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7
Q

What are the characteristics of peptide hormones?

A

Vary in size
Pre-synthesized and stored in vesicles for fast release
Hydrophilic
Short half-life, quickly metabolized in the bloodstream

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8
Q

How are peptide hormones synthesized?

A

Synthesized as preprohormones by RNA in the ER → Catalyzed into prehormones → Packaged into vesicles → Final hormone formed in Golgi apparatus → Released into the bloodstream when triggered.

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9
Q

What are the characteristics of steroid hormones?

A

Synthesized from cholesterol
Not pre-synthesized; slow release (up to 90 mins)
Hydrophobic
Long half-life due to carrier proteins

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10
Q

What are some examples of steroid hormones?

A

Aldosterone and cortisol (from adrenal cortex)
Estradiol (from ovaries)

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11
Q

How do steroid hormones interact with target cells?

A

They diffuse through membranes
bind to intracellular receptors,
forming a transcription factor that influences gene expression.

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12
Q

What are amine hormones, and from what are they derived?

A

Amine hormones are derived from either tyrosine or tryptophan.

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13
Q

What hormones are derived from tyrosine?

A
  1. Catecholamines: dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine
  2. Thyroid hormones: T3 and T4
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14
Q

What hormone is derived from tryptophan?

A

Melatonin

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15
Q

How do catecholamines behave?

A

they behave like peptide hormones.

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16
Q

How do thyroid hormones behave?

A

they behave like steroid hormones.

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17
Q

What does the hypothalamus do?

A

Integrates information about the environment and body state (e.g., hydration, stress, time of day, menstrual cycle) and sends signals to the pituitary.

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18
Q

What connects the hypothalamus and pituitary?

A

The infundibulum

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19
Q

What is the posterior pituitary gland composed of?

A

Neuroendocrine tissue developed from neural tissue, connected to the hypothalamus by nerves.

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20
Q

How is the anterior pituitary gland connected to the hypothalamus

A

By a portal system of capillaries.

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21
Q

What hormones are stored and released by the posterior pituitary gland (PPG)?

A

Vasopressin and oxytocin.

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22
Q

Where are vasopressin and oxytocin synthesized?

A

In magnocellular neurons in the hypothalamus

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23
Q

What triggers the release of vasopressin?

A

Increased plasma osmolarity or reduced plasma volume.

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24
Q

What are the primary functions of vasopressin?

A

Increases water reabsorption in kidneys and raises blood pressure in vascular smooth muscle.

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25
What triggers the release of oxytocin?
Baby suckling or labor.
26
What are the main actions of oxytocin?
Causes milk release and uterine contractions by contracting smooth muscle
27
What types of hormones does the anterior pituitary release?
Trophic hormones or direct-acting hormones.
28
What happens in the case of hormone imbalance in the anterior pituitary?
Atrophy (low hormone output) or hypertrophy (excess hormone output).
29
What is the sequence of hormone release from the hypothalamus to the bloodstream via the AP?
Hypothalamus → hypothalamic trophic hormone release → APG receptor binding → AP hormone release into bloodstream
30
What hormone does somatotroph cells in PG release
Growth hormone
31
What cell types are acidophiles
Somatotrophs and lactotrophs
31
What hormone does lactotroph cells in PG release
Prolactin
32
Which hypothalamic hormone is not a peptide hormone?
Dopamine.
33
What types of cell groups are found in the anterior pituitary gland?
Acidophile cells and basophil cells.
34
What cell types are basophiles (The Cool Guys)
Thyrotrophs, corticotrophs and gonadotrophs
35
What are the three integration centers for feedback control in the AP?
1) Hypothalamus, 2) Anterior pituitary, 3) Target endocrine cell
36
What types of feedback exist in the anterior pituitary gland?
Long-loop feedback (from endocrine target) and short-loop feedback (from AP to hypothalamus).
37
What are trophic hormones?
Hormones that trigger the release of other hormones
38
Where does vertical bone growth start from
Epiphyseal
39
What are the stages in bone growth
1. Prechondrytes + growth hormone 2. Develop into mature chondrytes 3. Release IGF1 4. Cell division 5. Chondrocytes produce cartilage 6. Old chondrocytes die 7. Osteoblasts create bone on top of the cartilage
40
What is the growth hormone release pathway
Hypothalamus = Growth hormone releasing hormone Anterior pituitary = growth hormone Liver = IGF1
41
What is the role of growth hormone and IGF1
Cell cycle and division, tissue growth, metabolism (protein synthesis, fat breakdown, and cellular glucose uptake)
42
What type of hormone is GH
Peptide hormone
43
What is the release pattern of GH
Cyclically, with most release during sleep Acute during puberty
44
How does thyroid hormone influence growth hormone activity
Increases receptor expression
45
How does sex hormones influence GH activity
Stimulates GH production Closes epiphyseal plate after puberty Testosterone increases protein synthesis
46
How does insulin affect GH activity
Increases protein synthesis Inhibits protein degradation Stimulates glucose uptake into cells
47
How does cortisol influence GH activity
Cortisol stimulates protein breakdown Inhibits GH
48
What are the causes of pituitary dwarfism
Deficiency of GH in childhood, lack of production or lack of receptors
49
What are the symptoms of pituitary dwarfism
Lack of vertical growth
50
What is the treatment for pituitary dwarfism
genetically engineered hGH, limited window for treatment
51
What are the causes of pituitary gigantism
Excess of GH in childhood, caused by benign tumor
52
What are the symptoms of pituitary gigantism
Tall as fuck
53
What are the treatment options for pituitary gigantism
tumour removal, or somatostatin like drugs (sometimes ineffective as tumour doesn't respond to negative feedback signals)
54
What are the causes of acromegaly
Excess of GH in teenage years or adulthood, caused benign by benign tumor
55
What are the symptoms of acromegaly
Thickening of bones in hands, feet and face, hypertrophy of organs i.e heart
56
What are the treatment options for acromegaly
surgical removal or somatostatin drugs
57
What two endocrine cells does the thyroid gland contain
1. Follicular cells 2. Clear cells
58
What are thyroid hormones synthesised from
Tyrosine and iodine
59
Are thyroid hormones slow or fast acting
Slow
60
How are thyroid hormones synthesised
In colloid → thyroid peroxidase binds thyroglobulin and iodine to form T3 and T4 that are attached to the thyroglobulin backbone In follicular cell → T3 and T4 separated from backbone and diffuse into bloodstream
61
What pattern of production are thyroid hormones
Continuous and acute
62
What functions do thyroid hormones regulate
metabolism and growth
63
Symptoms of hyperthyroidism (SWEATING)
Sweating Weight loss Emotional disturbances Appetite increase Tachycardia Intolerance to heat Nervous system hypoexitability Goiter
64
What physiological changes are present in hyperthyroidism Hot Cats Never Chill
Hot = Increased metabolic rate and heat production C = catabolism of proteins N = nervous system function is altered C = cardiac function
65
What are the causes of hyperthyroidism
Graves disease, pituitary tumour
66
What are the treatment options for hyperthyroidism
Surgery, radioactive iodine treatment, thyrostatics (block TH synthesis), propylthiouracil (blocks T4 to T3 conversion)
67
What are the symptoms of hypothyroidism
weight gain cold intolerance brittle hair and nails slow speeches and reflexes slow heart rate goiter
68
What are the physiological changes present in hypothyroidism
Altered nervous system functioning Changes in cardiac functioning Decreased metabolic rate Decreased heat production Disrupted protein synthesis
69
What are the causes of hypothyroidism
Iodine deficiency, autoimmune
70
What are the treatments for hypothyroidism
Oral T4, iodine supplements
71
What two tissues make up the adrenal gland
Medulla and cortex
72
What type of tissue is the medulla
neurohormonal
73
what type of tissue is the cortex
true endocrine tissue
74
What type of hormones does the medulla secrete
catecholamines
75
What are the three zones in the adrenal cortex
1. zona reticularis 2. zona fasciculata 3. zona glomerulosa
76
What hormones does the zona reticularis secrete
Sex hormones
77
What hormones does the zona fasciculata secrete
Glucocorticoids
78
What hormones does the zona glomerulosa secrete
Aldosterone
79
What is the release pattern for cortisol
Cyclic - dinural
80
What is the role of cortisol Cortisol Helps Stressful People get Big Memories
Chronic stress response protects against Hypoglycaemia Suppresses immune function stimulates Production of glucose (gluconeogenesis) Breaks down fats and proteins for energy Memory and learning
81
What are the symptoms of hypercortisolism
hyperglycaemia tissue wasting fat accumulation in abdomen and face immunosuppression
82
What are the causes of secondary hypercortisolism
pituitary tumour that secretes ACTH
83
What are the treatments for hypercortisolism
surgery or stopping of glucocorticoid medications
84
What are the symptoms of hypocortisolism
hypoglycaemia, hypotension, loss of salt balance, mood disorder, weakness and lethargy
85
What are the causes of hypocortisolism (ADDISON)
Autoimmune (addisons disease) Degenerative Drugs Infections (TB) Secondary Others Neoplasia
86
What are the treatments for hypocortisolism
oral glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, dietary management, treatments for causal disorder
87
What hormone does thyrotrophs release
Thyroid stimulating hormone
88
What hormone does corticotrophs release
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
89
What hormone does gonadotrophs release
Lutenising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone
90
What is an addisons crisis
extreme hypoglycaemia in response to stress, can be fatal
91
What are the causes of primary hypercortisolism
adrenals produce excess cortisol because of tumour
92
What are the 7 hypothalamic hormones
1. dopamine 2. prolactin releasing hormone 3. thyroid releasing hormone 4. cortisol releasing hormone 5. growth hormone releasing hormone 6. growth factor inhibiting hormone 7 gonad releasing hormone
93
What are the 6 anterior pituitary hormones
1. prolactin 2. thyroid stimulating hormone 3. ACTH 4. growth hormone 5. FSH 6. LH
94
What is the release pathway for IGF-1 including location
Hypothalamus = GHRH Anterior pituitary = GH Liver = IGF-1
95
What is the release pathway for T3 and T4 including locations
Hypothalamus = TRH AP = TSH Thyroid gland = T3 and T4
96
What is the release pathway for cortisol, including locations
H = CRH Anterior Pituitary = ACTH Adrenal cortex = cortisol
97
Where is angiotensin released from
Liver
98
Where is renin released from
kidneys
99
what enzyme converts angiotensin I to II
angiotensin converting enzyme
100
Where is ACE released from
endothelium
101
What triggers the release of renin
dehydration
102
What is the release pattern of angiotensin
chronic
103
Anterior pituitary is connected to hypothalamus via
Portal system
104
Posterior pituitary is connected to hypothalamus via
Mangocellular neurons
105
Primary hypo or hyper cortisolism is caused by dysfunction of pituitary gland or adrenal glands?
Adrenal glands
106
Secondary hyper/hypocortisolism is caused by disfunction of adrenal glands or pituitary gland?
Pituitary

Physiology (Cells) (11 decks)

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