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Inleiding in de psychologie (H1 t/m 8) > Hoofdstuk 7 > Flashcards

Hoofdstuk 7 Flashcards

1
Q

Photoreceptors

A

Specialized light-detecting cells, in multicellular animals.

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2
Q

Retina

A

A membrane lining the rear interior of the eyeball. The photoreceptors lie in here.

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3
Q

Vitreous humor

A

A clear gelatinous substance, through which light easily passes.

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4
Q

Cornea

A

A transparent tissue that, because of its convex (outward) curvature, helps to focus the light that passes through it.

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5
Q

Iris

A

The pigmented, donut-shaped, which provides the colour of the eye.

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6
Q

Pupil

A

Where the light enters interior of the eye, the black appearing centre in the iris. Muscle fibres in the iris enable it to increase or decrease the diameter of the pupil to allow more or less light to enter.

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7
Q

Lens

A

Adds to the focusing process begun by the cornea. Unlike the cornea, the lens is adjustable; it becomes more spherical when focusing on objects close to the eye and flatter when focusing on those farther away.

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8
Q

How do the cornea, iris and lens help to form images on the retina?

A

The focusing properties of the cornea and lens bring the light rays back together at a particular point on the retina, thereby forming an image of the object on the retina-> the image is upside down.

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9
Q

Transduction

A

A process by which a stimulus in the environment generates electrical changes in neurons.

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10
Q

Cones (Kegeltjes)

A

A photoreceptor cell in one thin layer of the multi-layered retina, that permits sharply focused colour vision in bright light. Cones are most concentrated in the fovea.

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11
Q

Rods (staafjes)

A

A photoreceptor cell in one thin layer of the multi-layered retina, that permits vision in dim light.

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12
Q

Fovea

A

The pinhead-size area of the retina that is in the most direct line of sight-> point of central focus. The fovea is specialized for high visual acuity (the ability to distinguish tiny details).

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13
Q

How do cones and rods respond to light?

A

Cones-> bright light.
Rods-> dim light.

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14
Q

Photochemical

A

In the outer segment of the photoreceptor lying chemical that reacts to light.

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15
Q

Rhodopsin

A

The photochemical of the rods. When hit by light, rhodopsin, molecules undergo a structural change that triggers a series of chemical reactions in the rod’s membrane, which in turn causes a change in the electrical charge across the membrane.

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16
Q

Optic nerve

A

Runs from the back of the eye to the brain.

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17
Q

Blindspot

A

At the place on the retina where the axons of these neurons converge to form the optic nerve there are no receptor cells.

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18
Q

Cone (photopic) vision

A

Specialized for high acuity (the ability to see fine detail) and for colour perception-> see fine details during day light.

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19
Q

Rod (scoptic) vision

A

Specialized for sensitivity (the ability to see in very dim light). It lacks acuity to distinguish colours, it is sensitive enough to allow a person on a clear night to detect a single candle flame from 30 miles away if no other lights are present-> seeing (vague) outlines and figures.

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20
Q

Dark adaptation

A

The gradual sensitivity that occurs after you enter a darkened room.

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21
Q

Light adaptation

A

More rapid decrease in sensitivity that occurs after you turn on an bright lamp or step out into sunlight.

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22
Q

Why do we see mostly with cones in bright light and with rods in dim light?

A

Different sensitivities of rods and cones: Rhodopsin is much more sensitive to light than are the cone phytochemicals-> Bright light causes rhodopsin to break down into two inactive substances, making the rods non-functional-> Therefore we see mostly in bright lights with our cones.

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23
Q

Three-primaries law

A

Three different wavelengths of light (called primaries) can be used to match any colour that the eye can see if they are mixed in the appropriate proportions. The primaries can be any three wavelengths, provided that one is taken from the long-wave end of the spectrum (red), one dorm the shortwave end (blue or violet) and one from the middle (green or green-yellow).

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24
Q

Law of complementarity

A

Pairs of wavelengths can be found that, when added together, produce the visual sensation of white. The wavelengths of light in such a pair are complements of each other

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25
Q

Two theories of colour vision:

A

(1) the trichromatic theory and (2) opponent-process theory.

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26
Q
A
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27
Q

Trichromatic theory

A

Colour vision emerges from the combined activity of three different types of receptors, each most sensitive to a different range of wavelengths. Every colour we see is a unique proportion, or ratio, of activity among three types of receptors, then the three-primaries law would be an inevitable result: it would be possible to match any visible colour by varying the relative intensities of three primary lights, each of which acts maximally on a different type of receptor.
There are indeed three types of cones in the human retina, each with a different photochemical that makes it most sensitive to the lights within a particular band of wavelengths.

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28
Q

The opponent process theory (Ewald Herring)

A

Colour perception is mediated by neurons that can be either exhibited or inhibited, depending on the wavelength of light and that complementary have opposite effects on these opponent-process units. And a mixture of wavelengths form the blue and yellow parts of the spectrum, or form the green and red parts, appears white, because the two sets of wavelengths cancel each other out in their effects on colour detectors but act in concert to excite brightness detectors.

29
Q

Experience-expectant processes

A

The nervous system of animals has been prepared by natural selection to expect certain types of stimulation. So it is the process whereby synapses are formed and maintained when an organism has species-typical experiences.

30
Q

Feature detectors

A

The neurons of the primary visual cortex and nearby areas, that keeps track of all the bits and pieces of visual information that would be available in a scene. Because of their sensitivity to the elementary features of a scene, these neurons are called feature detectors.

31
Q

Feature integration theory

A

The assertion that any perceived stimulus consists of a number of distinct primitive sensory features (colour, individual lines)-> to perceive the stimulus as a unified entity, the perceptual system must detect these individual features and integrate them as a whole. The essence: the detection and integration occur sequentially, in two fundamentally different steps or stages of information processing. Step 1: Detection of features (parallel processing) and step 2: integration of features (serial processing).

32
Q

Parallel processing

A

This step operates simultaneously on all parts of the stimulus array. That is, our visual system picks up at once all the primitive features of all the objects whose light rays strike our retinas (also picking up other things, that what we are directly looking at).

33
Q

Serial processing

A

Occurs sequentially at one spatial location at a time, rather than simultaneously over the entire array (we cannot integrate two sets of features simultaneously).

34
Q

Illusory conjunctions

A

When people see stimuli flashing briefly on a screen they easily identify which primitive features were present, but sometimes misperceive which features went together.

35
Q

Gestalt psychology

A

The mind must be understood in terms of organized wholes, not elementary parts. ‘’The whole is different form the sum of their parts’’; because the whole is defined by the way the parts are organized, not just by the parts themselves.

36
Q

What are some gestalt principles of grouping proposed by Gestalt psychologists?

A
  1. Proximity
  2. Similarity
  3. Closure
  4. Good continuation
  5. Common movement
  6. Good form
37
Q

Proximity

A

We tent to see stimulus elements that are near each other as parts of the same object and those that are separated as parts of different objects. 7.16a

38
Q
A
39
Q

Similarity

A

We tend to see stimulus elements that physically resemble each other as parts of the same object and those that do not resemble each other as parts of different objects; distinguish. 7.16b

40
Q

Closure

A

We tent to see forms as completely enclosed by a border and to ignore gaps in the border-> perceive whole objects. 7.16c

41
Q

Good continuation

A

When lines intersect, we tent to group the line segments to form continuous lines with minimal change in direction-> helps decide which lines belong to which object when two or more object overlap. 7.16d

42
Q

Common movement

A

When stimulus elements move in the same direction and the same rate, we tent to see them as part of a single object-> helps distinguish a moving object. 7.16e

43
Q

Good form

A

The perceptual system strives to produce precepts that are elegant- simple, uncluttered, symmetrical, regular and predictable-> encompasses the other principles listed above but also includes other ways by which the perceptual system organizes stimuli into their simplest arrangement. 7.16f

44
Q

Figure

A

The object attracts attention.

45
Q

Circumscription

A

Other things being equal, we tent to see the circumscribing form (the one that surrounds the other) as the ground and the circumscribed form as the figure.

46
Q

Reversible figure

A

At any given moment you can see either this or that, but not at the same time, because the same part of the figure cannot simultaneously be both figure and ground-> 7.18, either profile of two faces or a vase.

47
Q

Unconsciously inference

A

The visual system uses the sensory input from a scene to draw inferences about what is actually present, without conscious awareness and at a speed of milliseconds.
 Neural processes in the brain.

48
Q

Top-down control

A

Control that comes from higher up brain areas. Bring to bear the results of calculations based on sensory input and form the larger context.

49
Q

Bottom-up control

A

Control that comes more directly from the sensory input/ stimulus.

50
Q

Visual agnosia

A

When people can still see, but can no longer make sense of what they see.

51
Q

Form agnosia

A

When people see something is present and can identify some of its elements, but cannot perceive its shape.

52
Q

Visual object agnosia

A

When people can describe and draw the shapes of objects that they see, but still cannot identify the objects.

53
Q

The visual areas beyond the primary areas exist in two relatively distinct cortical pathways, or ‘’streams’’ which serve different functions:

A
  1. The ‘’what’’ pathway/ the lower, temporal stream: Is specialized for identifying objects.
  2. The ‘’where’’/ ‘’how’’ pathway/ the upper, parietal stream: Maintains a map of three dimensional space, localizing objects within that space. This pathway is also crucial for the use of visual information to guide a person’s movements-> also how the person must move in order to interact with the object.
54
Q

Own-race bias

A

The fact that people are better able to distinguish between and remember faces from their own race or ethnic group than from other races or ethnic groups. This is not because of racism, but because we simply see more faces of our own race; experience is key.
 Supports the idea that learning is involved in recognizing faces.

55
Q

Fusiform face area (FFA)

A

fusiform gyrus-> recognizing familiar faces.

56
Q

Occipital face area

A

Appears to be responsible for processing new faces and distinguishing faces from other objects and is strongly connected to the fusiform area.

57
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

‘Face blindness’. In which damage to the fusiform face area results in people having difficulty recognizing familiar faces although they show no deficits in recognizing nonface objects. They recognise a face, but are unable to identify whose face it is. It can be genetic or caused by a stroke. They are often able to identify the person by non-facial cues.

58
Q

Binocular disparity (ongelijkheid)

A

Refers to the slightly different (disparate) views that the two eyes have of the same object or scene. This is because the eyes are a few centimetres apart and so they view any given object form slightly different angles.

59
Q

Stereopsis

A

The ability to see depth form binocular disparity (Charles Wheatstone).

60
Q

Motion parallax

A

The changed vantage point comes from the movement of the head. It is very similar to the binocular disparity, but the cause if that is the separation of the two eyes.

61
Q

Pictorial cues

A

Motion parallax depends on the geometry of true three-dimensionality and cannot be used to depict depth in two-dimensional pictures. All the remaining monocular depth cues, however, can provide a sense of depth in pictures as well as in the real three-dimensional world-> they are pictural cues for depth. 6 pictorial cues:

62
Q

Size constancy

A

The ability to see an object as unchanged in size, despite the change in the image size as it moves farther away or closer.

62
Q

6 pictorial cues:

A
  1. Occlusion= Near objects occlude more that distant objects.
  2. Relative image size for familiar objects
  3. Linear perspective
  4. Texture gradient= Decrease in size and detail when it is further away.
  5. Position relative to the horizon= Objects nearer the horizon are usually farther away than those that are displaced from the horizon in either direction.
  6. Differential lightning of surfaces= The amount of light reflected from different surfaces varies as a function of their orientation with respect to the sun or other source of light.
63
Q

Depth processing theory

A

One object in each illusion appears larger than the other because of the distance cues that, at some early stage of perceptual processing, lead it to be judged as farther away.

64
Q

Moon illusion

A

The phenomenon that the moon looks much bigger when it is near the earth’s horizon, but looks much smaller when it is closer to the zenith (directly overhead). This is an illusion, because the moon is always the same size and the same distance from us.

65
Q

Multisensory integration

A

The integration of information from different senses by the nervous system.

66
Q

Visual dominance effect

A

When sight and sound are put in conflict with one and other, the vision usually ‘’wins’’.

67
Q

McGurk effect

A

The phenomenon that vision has greater influence on audition than vice versa. ‘’ba’’ changes to ‘’da’’.

68
Q

Synestesia

A

Joined perception; a condition in which sensory stimulation in one modality induces a sensation in a different modality (hearing music and tasting things, or seeing colours). 1 in 20 people have this.

Inleiding in de psychologie (H1 t/m 8) (8 decks)

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