Hoofdstuk 5

Question 1

Motivational state/drive

Answer 1

Interchangeably to denote an internal condition that orients an individual toward a specific category of goals and that can change over time in a reversible way (increase or decrease). It often promotes our survival or reproduction.

Question 2

Homeostasis

Answer 2

The constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintain. (Walter B. Cannon). Outward behaviour and internal processes.

Question 3

Regulatory drive

Answer 3

Helps preserve homeostasis (like hunger).

Question 4

Nonregulatory drive

Answer 4

Serves some other purposes, than maintaining homeostasis (like sex).

Question 5

5 categories of mammalian drives based on function:

Answer 5

1. Regulatory drives; maintain the body’s homeostasis.
2. Safety drives; drives that motivate animals to avoid, escape, or fend off dangers. Fear, anger and sleep.
3. Reproductive drives; most obvious are the sexual drive and the drive to care four young. And sexual jealousy.
4. Social drives; Cooperation to survive. People will risk their lives for friendship and social approval.
5. Educative drives; To play and explore.

Question 6

In theory what characteristics must a set of neurons have to function as a central drive system?

Answer 6

(1) It must receive and integrate the various signals that can raise or lower the drive state.
(2) It must act on all the neural processes that would be involved in carrying out the motivated behaviour.

Question 7

3 interrelated, but separate meanings of reward:

Answer 7

1. Liking; pleasure.
2. Wanting; desire.
3. Reinforcing; promoting learning.

Question 8

What is some evidence that the ‘’wanting’’ and ‘’liking’’ components involve different neurotransmitters?

Answer 8

o Dopamine-> essential for the ‘’wanting’’ component of reward, but not for the ‘’liking’’ component (studies where the dopamine is blocked or increased by rats).
o Endorphin-> essential for the ‘’liking’’ component. Endorphin= chemicals created in the body that have effects on similar to those of morphine and other opiate drugs such as opium and heroin; inhibiting the sense of pain and pleasurable experiences.

Question 9

Arcuate nucleus

Answer 9

Lies in the centre of the lowest portion of the hypothalamus, very close to the pituitary gland-> ‘’master control centre’’ for appetite and weight regulation. It contains two classes of neurons: (1) appetite-stimulating neurons and (2) appetite-suppressing neurons.

Question 10

PPY

Answer 10

An appetite-suppressing hormone and is produced by special endocrine cells in the large intestine.

Question 11

Leptin

Answer 11

A hormone that is secreted directly to the amount of fat that is in the cells. It is taken into the brain and acts on neurons in the arcuate nucleus and other parts of the hypothalamus to reduce appetite.

Question 12

Sensory-specific satiety

Answer 12

When a person is actually satiated by a certain type of food, but there is a renewed appetite when a different food, with a different taste, is placed before them. It is mediated primarily by the sense of taste-> renewed activation of the appetite-stimulating neurons in the hypothalamus and more pleasure.

Question 13

Why is sleepiness a drive?

Answer 13

Because a person is motivated to go to sleep and will expand effort to reach a safe and comfortable place to do so, is also gives pleasure.

Question 14

What is the difference between sleep drive and other regulatory drives?

Answer 14

With sleep it is not known what the sleep drives regulate, except sleep itself.

Question 15

REM sleep

Answer 15

REM (rapid-eye-movement sleep)-> the person is asleep, the muscles are most relaxed, but the EEG measures an active state-> most dreams occur.

Question 16

How many cycles of sleep does a person complete in a tipically night of sleep?

Answer 16

4 to 5 cycles (each cycle takes about 90 minutes)

Question 17

What are the three theories about the function of sleep?

Answer 17

1. The preservation and protection theory.
2. The body-resorption theory.
3. The brain-maintenance theory of REM sleep.

Question 18

The preservation and protection theory

Answer 18

Preserve energy and protect individuals during that portion of each 24-hour day when there is relatively little value and considerable danger in moving about.

Question 19

The body-resorption theory

Answer 19

The theory that the body wears out during the day and that sleep is necessary to put it back in shape. Small mammals sleep longer than large ones, because small ones need a higher overall level of metabolism (because they lose heat more rapidly).

Question 20

The brain-maintenance theory of REM sleep

Answer 20

REM sleep should provide exercise to groups of neurons in the brain. Synapses can degenerate if they go too long without being active.

Question 21

Circadian rhythm

Answer 21

Biological change, at close to a 24-hour cycle, in the absence of external cues.

Question 22

Suprachiasmatic

Answer 22

The place in a specific nucleus of the hypothalamus, where the clock is that regulates the circadian rhythm-> contains rhythm-generating neurons that gradually increase and decrease their rate of action potentials over a cycle of approximately 24 hours, even when surgically isolated form the other parts of the brain-> it also controls a daily rhythm of body temperature and of certain hormones (melatonin).

Question 23

Emotion

Answer 23

A subjective feeling that is mentally directed toward some object.

Question 24

Affect

Answer 24

The feeling associated with emotion, independent of the object. Two dimensions: (1) the degree of peasantness of the feeling and (2) the degree of mental and physical arousal.

Question 25

mood

Answer 25

Long-lasting emotional feelings, not directed at an object.

Question 26

Discrete emotion theory

Answer 26

The belief that basic emotions are innate and associated with distinctive bodily and facial reactions.

Question 27

Peripheral changes

Answer 27

All changes in the body outside of the central nervous system

Question 28

James’s theory of emotion

Answer 28

The thought that we feel emotions because of our bodily changes and not the other way around. This bodily reaction to an emotion-provoking stimulus is automatic, unconscious and that the emotional state follows-> on the basis of one’s perception of the bodily state. Figure 5.15!!

Question 29

Schachter’s theory of emotion

Answer 29

The feeling of an emotion depends not just on sensory feedback pertaining to the body’s response, but also on the person’s perceptions and thoughts about the environmental event that presumably evoked that response-> perception and thought influence the type of emotion and sensory feedback influences the intensity.

Question 30

How does Schachter’s theory differ from James’s?

Answer 30

With James’s theory the sensory feedback determines if we feel a certain emotion. Schachter’s agrees with this, but he says that the sensory feedback only determines the intensity of the emotion and that our perception+ thoughts determine the type of emotion-> difference: Schachter takes our thoughts and perception into his theory, James doesn’t.

Question 31

Ekman’s theory of emotion

Answer 31

A person’s facial response influences the person’s feeling of an emotion and also influences the person’s bodily responses to the emotional situation

Question 32

2 routes of sensory input to the amygdala

Answer 32

(1) subcortical, faster and (2) Cortical route, slower.

Question 33

The right and left prefrontal cortices are differentially involved with different types of emotional responses

Answer 33

Right: Greater neural activity when experiencing negative emotions-> withdrawal.
Left: Greater neural activity when experiencing positive emotions-> approach.