Hoofdstuk 11 Treadwell (samenvatting Flow) - Watching and listening: qualitative research for in-depth understanding

Question 1

Focus groups:

Answer 1

small groups of people brought together to discuss a topic of interest to the
researcher.

Question 2

Interviews:

Answer 2

asking questions of a respondent, face-to-face or by phone or video, to elicit
information the researcher is interested in.

Question 3

Wat is een risico bij het selecteren van participanten voor interviews of discussies?

Answer 3

Participants in interviews or discussion are often selected using judgmental sampling.

Question 4

Wat zijn positieve en negatieve aspecten van kwalitatief onderzoek?

Answer 4

Positief:
1. Inzicht
2. Validiteit

negatief:
1. niet generaliseerbaar
2. of betrouwbaar

Question 5

Worldview I:

Answer 5

humans are similar and their behaviour can be predicted. Research approach
with emphasis on making generalizations about human behaviour.

Question 6

Worldview II:

Answer 6

humans are individual and unpredictable. Research approach on understanding
subjectivity and individuality of human communication.

Question 7

Quantitative researches

Answer 7

look for relationships among phenomena; qualitative researches
look to understand how phenomena are seen through the eyes of their research participants

Question 8

Which different kind of participants does exist in qualitative studies?

Answer 8

1. Informants
2. Respondents
3. Interviewees
4. Subjects

Question 9

What type of participants are informants?

Answer 9

people selected because they can talk about or on behalf of others as well
as themselves.

Question 10

What type of participants are Respondents

Answer 10

people who are speaking for themselves

Question 11

What type of participants are Interviewees:

Answer 11

people who are interviewed; can be informants or respondents.

Question 12

What type of participants are subjects?

Answer 12

individuals who participate in an experiment

Question 13

What are the benefits of unstructured interviews?

Answer 13

• Allow interviewer to establish a relationship with interviewee
• Allow interviewer to deal with any questions or anxieties the interviewee may have
• Give the interviewer a sense of the agenda the interviewee may have
• The opportunity to begin snowball-sampling
• When research is done to obtain new insights

Question 14

What are Semi-structured interviews?

Answer 14

a broad set of questions, but the interviewer has discretion in
how the questions will be asked. Semi-structured interviews keep the interviews keep the
interview focused but allow both interviewer and interviewee room to move.

Question 15

drie eigenschappen van fully structured interviews:

Answer 15

• Questions could be asked by mail, phone, e-mail or even by someone else than you
• Questions may be formatted as Likert, semantic differential or multiple-choice
• Needs to be pretested before use

Question 16

Uses and gratifications theory:

Answer 16

theory of media use that proposes that individuals are
proactive and selective in choosing media content to which they expose themselves, for a
verity of reasons like e.g. escape from routine and problems or substituting the media for
companionship and personal relationships.

Question 17

Effective interviews require practice, preparation and attention to (5 criteria)

Answer 17

1. Interview setting: can affect the nature of the interview.
2. Interview sensitivities: consider religious, cultural and technology sensitivities when
   arranging interview. E.g. sometimes women cannot be interviewed by men because of
   their religion.
3. Interview sequence: in which order do questions occur (funnel or inverted funnel).
   Sensitive questions can be placed in the middle of a survey.
4. Interview question types: you need different kind of questions to fully interpret
   informants’ understandings of the phenomena you are interested in. If you use all
   three types of questions*, you can have some confidence that you have thoroughly
   explored your interviewees’ view of their worlds and you have an in-depthunderstanding
   of them.
5. Interview question prompts: prompts are simply the follow-up questions that elicit
   more information and keep the interview progressing. Classic prompts are ‘tell me
   more’ or ‘5W’s + H’ ** of journalism. Interviews don’t need to be 100% talk, people can
   also demonstrate something.

Question 18

What is meant with Descriptive questions:

Answer 18

ask informants to describe the phenomena, like ‘mini-tour questions’.
E.g. ‘in a typical semester, how do you use your social networking sites?’

Question 19

What is meant with structural questions?

Answer 19

explore the relationship among the terms informants use. E.g. ‘would
you describe an online job search as part of you social networking?’

Question 20

What is meant with contrast questions?

Answer 20

help the researcher understand similarities, differences and relative
importance of informants’ concepts. E.g. ‘you talk about job search and career search, could
you explain the difference between these two?’

Question 21

5W + H

Answer 21

Who, what, when, where, why, how

Question 22

focus group

Answer 22

often 6 – 12 persons led by a moderator to discuss a
topic of interest. Focus groups are often used to pretest survey questions or after a survey to
help researchers understand the results. Participants of a focus group are often selected by
judgmental sampling, sampling based on a group of persons that match the criteria the
researcher may have. They are selected to represent a defined demographic group, such as
middle-aged married males.

Question 23

Weakness of interviews and focus groups:

Answer 23

human communication is not observed in its
natural setting.

Question 24

Level at which we engage with the people whose communication behavior we seek to
understand:

Answer 24

• Too remote: you may not discern important details and subtleties
• Too close: you may develop biases toward participants, which will affect the
  observation and reporting and possibly even the answers

Question 25

Ethnography:

Answer 25

the study of human social behavior or cultures. Suggest that we are observing,
describing, and interpreting people’s behavior.

Question 26

Four classic relationships between researcher and informant”

Answer 26

1. Complete observer: no interaction with informants, they are not aware that they are
   being observed.
2. Observer as participant: used in one-visit scenarios, researcher has to decide what to
   observe or ask because he is now interacting with the informant.
3. Participant as observer: occurs typically in studies of communities, where researcher
   may spend some time. Mutual trust may develop between researcher and
   participants. Disadvantage: if relationship becomes more like a friendship, participant
   may not want to answer certain questions that can hurt that friendship which may bias
   the observations.
4. Complete participant: researcher participates really close in informants’ lives; his
   research role may even be unknown to them. The pretend to be something other what
   they really are.

Question 27

Some principles of ethnographic research:

Answer 27

• Conduct research primarily in natural settings
• Combine direct observation with interviews
• Focus on local, subjective knowledge and categories
• Engage directly with the community’s members

Question 28

Decisions that must precede ethnographic research:

Answer 28

• Selecting informants
• Deciding whether to interview people individually or in groups
• Choosing between structured and unstructured interviews
• Deciding how to analyse the data from the research

Question 29

(Formal and informal) gatekeepers:

Answer 29

those who make access to a community or culture
possible.

Question 30

Formal gatekeepers:

Answer 30

those individuals whose permission makes the access officially possible.
Access to a work team, for example, will probably require approval from management.

Question 31

Key informants:

Answer 31

The individuals who are part of the study community and who introduce and
legitimize the researcher’s work to their community.

Question 32

Generally, ethnographers record at least three different kinds of notes:

Answer 32

1. • Descriptive notes: the primary, detailed records of the human interactions, language,
     and settings that are the focus of ethnography.
2. • Method notes: records of the specific methods researchers use to gather data, for
     example direct observation and interviews. Individuals are likely to behave and speak
     differently in one-on-one interviews than they are in a group setting.
3. • Analytic notes: notes a researcher writes as a way to make sense of or interpret the
     raw data or descriptive notes.

Question 33

Ethnography of communication

Answer 33

(Dell Hymes, 1974): communication could be examined as a
social and cultural practice and was therefore open to study by ethnographic methods.

Question 34

Six basic units as a framework for research according to Dell Hymes:

Answer 34

1. Speech community: a group of people who share common signs, a language that
   differentiates them from other groups, and rules governing their speech. Example: a
   group of communication majors
2. speech situation: the occasions within a speech community when people talk.
   Example: an introductory class on research methods or an annual awards dinner.
3. speech event: the specific speech activity that takes place. Example: a student
   presentation or an awards speech.
4. Communicative act: the smaller units of speech within a speech event. Example: asking a question or telling a joke.
5. Communicative style:the speech-style that is characteristic of someone. Example:
   being habitually ironic or using ‘geek’ jargon.
6. Ways of speaking:the styles of speech that may be used in specific situations and
   events or that are characteristic of a culture. Example: at the beginning of a class, the
   instructor speaks before students do.

Question 35

After choosing one of the basic units as a framework for research according Dell Hymes, to study, you would analyse it by asking a set of
questions that helps a researcher document the language and meanings in a speech
community. This is called SPEAKING:

Answer 35

* Situation: the setting where the activities take place and the overall scene of which
they are a part. Example: a college room.
* Participants: the people present and their roles and relationships within the speech
situation. Example: students and faculty.
* Ends: the ends or goals of the communication being studied. Example: mastering the
language of communication research.
* Acts: the language and behaviors that convey meaning to the participants. Example:
instructors demonstrating a specific research method.
* Key: the tone of speech. How the speech sounds. Example: formal or friendly.
* Instrumentality: the channels or methods used to communicate. Example: an online
discussion group.
* Norms: the rules governing speech and its interpretation. Example: students cannot
ask questions until after the instructor has spoken.
* Genres: the traditional types of speech found in most cultures. Examples:
commencement speeches, election “stump” speeches and lectures.

Question 36

Observational studies:

Answer 36

record and interpret individual and group behaviors in their natural
setting. Ethnography depends upon observation, but not every observational study is an
ethnography. For example: you could observe behavior of people at a rock concert without
doing any in-depth interviews that an ethnography requires.

Question 37

Conversation analysis:

Answer 37

analysing how people negotiate understanding and the rules for
understanding. For example: if a question is posed during a conversation or discussion, what
are the rules that determine whether it gets an answer or not.

Question 38

Categorization in sampling:

Answer 38

identifying each piece of data as belonging to a particular category
predetermined by the researcher or generated from the data themselves.

Question 39

Three types of coding

Answer 39

• Fixed coding: assign items to specific non-changing pre-assigned categories and count
  the frequencies
• Flexible coding: start with theoretically informed categories that may change as new
  data come in
• Grounded-in-data-coding: start with no pre-conceived categories to allow categories
  and theories to emerge as data analysis progresses.

Question 40

Grounded theory:

Answer 40

a research approach that argues that theories should emerge from data
analysis, not prior to data analysis.