Honors -Final Exam Flashcards
How to calculate neutrons:
of Neutrons = Atomic Mass Number - Atomic Number
Electron Configuration
A shorthand method of writing the location of electrons by sublevels.
How do the bulk properties of polymers effect their behavior?
Linear structure - thermoplastics (can be melted and thus recycled.)
Branched chains - strengthen the structure of thermoplastics
Loosely Cross Linked Chains - loosely cross linked structures form an elastomers (rubber)
Tightly Cross Linked Chains - thermoset plastics (can not be melted and thus can not be recycled)
A polymer’s architecture affects many of its physical properties including, but not limited to, solution viscosity, melt viscosity, solubility in various solvents, glass transition temperature and the size of individual polymer coils in solution.
Combustion
Any compound formed from only Carbon an Hydrogen (fuel) added to Oxygen to produce Carbon Dioxide and Water.
What happens to an exothermic reaction when temperature is increased?
Heat is a product, so the reaction shifts to the left to make more reactant.
How to determine if a solution is unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated.
Add more solute and observe the results.
Acids
Electron acceptors.
Yeild H+ Ions in solution.
H+ donor.
Write the formula for Mg²⁺ and PO₄³⁻
Using the criss-cross method and subscripts to insure sum of charges is zero: Mg₃(PO₄)₂
Ionic Compounds
Conduct Electricity when melted or dissolved in water because….
What happens to an endothermic reaction when temperature is increased?
Heat is a reactant, so the reaction will shift to the right to make more product.
The Mole
A unit of measure.
1 mole = the atomic mass of an element
and
1 mole = 6.02 E23 atoms, particles, molecules, units, etc.
Solid
Solid is one of the four fundamental states of matter. It is characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of shape or volume.
Orbital
Sublevels can be broken down into regions called “orbitals”. An orbital is defined as the most probable location for finding an electron. Each orbital holds 2 electrons.
Thermochemistry
The study of energy changes during a chemical reaction or change of state (solid, liquid, gas).
Ionic Compounds
two words, first names cation second names anion. Indicate charge of transition metal cation by Roman Numeral. MgCl₂ = Magnesium Chloride Cr(NO₃)₃ = Chromium(III) Nitrate SnCl₂ = Tin(II) Chloride
Calculate the % Yield of solid silver chromate produced in the following reaction:
K₂CrO₄ + 2AgNO₃ → Ag₂CrO₄ + 2KNO₃
In the reaction there was .500g of the limiting reactant AgNO₃. In the actual experiment, .455g of Ag₂CrO₄ was produced.
Calculating the Theoretical Yield of Ag₂CrO₄ that was produced:
0.500g AgNO₃ x (1 mole AgNO₃ / 169.9g AgNO₃) x
(1mole Ag₂CrO₄ / 2 mole AgNO₃) x (331.7 g Ag₂CrO₄ / 1 mol Ag₂CrO₄) =0 .488g Ag₂CrO₄.
Find the ratio of the actual yield (.455g) to the theoretical yield (.488g) …
% Yield = (.455g Ag₂CrO₄ ÷ .488g Ag₂CrO₄ ) x 100 =
93.2 %
Amphoteric
Acid or Base
What is the electron configuration of Vanadium?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d³
[Ar] 4s² 3d³
Intramolecular Forces
Attractive forces WITHIN a molecule (Ionic & Covalent Bonds)
These bonds are stronger than intermolecular forces.
Single Replacement
An element and a compound are located on each side of the equation. The Activity Series must be checked to determine if the reaction will occur. If the reaction occurs, the element on the reactant side switches with the similarly charged ion within the compound on the reactant side.
A + BC –> AC + B
Melting
Make or become liquefied by heat. (Solid to Liquid)
Atomic Number
Identifies an element. The number of protons. For a neutral atom, the number of electrons will equal the number of protons. For an ion (charged atom) the number of electrons will not be the same as the atomic number.
Reactants
Substances being mixed in a chemical reaction. The left side of the equation.
Predict the products of and write a balanced equation from the following statement:
H₂O₂ →
H₂O₂ → H₂ + O₂
DECOMPOSITION
Is the solution unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated, if I have 60g of Potassium Nitrate in 100g of Water at 30 C?
Supersaturated
What is the orbital diagram for Magnesium?
Naming Ionic Bonds
State the name of the metal followed by the nonmetal with the ending changed to “ide”. If the metal is a transition metal, add a (Roman numeral). AlCl₃ = Aluminum Chloride CuCl₃ = Copper (III) Chloride
The three types of radiation and their penetration abilities:
Non Polar Covalent
A type of covalent bond between two atoms in which electrons are shared equally.
Percent Yeild
A measure of the efficiency of a reaction carried out in the laboratory.
Which of the following elements has the largest atomic radius?
A. nitrogen B. oxygen C. fluorine D. neon
N
(least number of protons attracting the electrons on the energy levels)
CaCl₂ + K₂CO₃ →
CaCl₂ + K₂CO₃ →CaCO₃ + 2KCl Double Replacement
Writing Formulas for Ionic Bonds
Absolute Value Criss Cross Oxidation #’s
What is the IUPAC name of
Products of an acid/base reaction
Salt + Water
Unsaturated
Contains less solute than it can at that temperature.
Atomic Mass Number
Also known as the Mass Number or Atomic Mass.
Ionic Bond
Metals GIVE electrons, Nonmetals TAKE electrons
Coefficients
The large numbers in front of chemical formulas. Represents the number of molecules of the substance.
2Al
What element is represented by this orbital diagram?
Carbon
Quantum of Energy
Absorbed when an electron moves from its ground state to its excited state.
Lone Pairs
Electron pairs which are not involved in bonding. They do however, affect the shape because electron pairs repel other electron pairs.
Oxidation Number
Ion Charge - number of electrons transferred to or away from an atom when it becomes an ion.
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can not be created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction
Calculate the volume required to prepare the diluted solution: Given 6.0M NaOH; need 5.0L of 0.10M NaOH.
M1V1 = M2V2
V1 = (M2V2)/(M1)
V1 = 0.083L
Predict the products and write a balanced equation from the following word statement:
Methane (CH₄) plus Oxygen Gas forms:
The Dissolving Process
- The solvent surrounds the outer surface of the solute.
- Individual Solute Ions are “stripped” away from the surface due to their attraction to the solvent particles.
- This exposes more particles to the solvent and thus the process continues.
Intermolecular Forces
Attractive forces BETWEEN molecules.
Van Der Waals or London Dispersion Forces are the weakest type of intermolecular force and hydrogen bonds are the strongest.
C₄H₆ + O₂ →
2C₄H₆ + 7O₂ →4CO₂ + 6H₂O Combustion
How to determine if a solution is unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated.
Add more solute and observe the results.
Write a chemical equation from the following word equation:
Lithium chloride reacts with magnesium nitrate to form lithium nitrate and magnesium chloride.
2LiCl + Mg(NO₃)₂ –> 2Li(NO₃) + MgCl₂
Describe crosslinking.
A process that makes a polymer more rigid and resistant to heat. The cross links in slime are hydrogen bonds.
Write a chemical equation from the following word equation:
Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
2Mg + O₂ –> 2MgO
How can you make things dissolve faster?
- Agitation (stirring)
- Temperature
- Increase Surface Area (Grind or Crush)
Is the solution unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated, if I have 60g of Potassium Nitrate in 100g of Water at 30 C?
Supersaturated
Specific Heat
the amount of energy in the form of heat, calories or joules, required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance 1°C
What is the solubility of Potassium Nitrate at 50 C?
86 g Potassium Nitrate
In the equation:
4Al + 3O₂→ 2Al₂O₃,
how many moles of Al₂O₃will be produced if there are 3.75 moles of O₂?
- 75 moles O₂ x (2 moles Al₂O₃/ 3 moles O₂) =
- 50 moles Al₂O₃
Subscripts
Small numbers to the lower right of chemical symbols. Represent the number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
0₂
Photon
Energy given off in the form of light by an excited electron. Otherwise known as a “quanta of light”.
Ions
Atoms or groups of atoms with a charge. To have a charge an atom must have gained or lost electrons. If an atom gains electrons it becomes negatively charged. If an atom loses electrons it will become positively charged.
Heat
Energy that transfers from one object to another due to a difference in temperature between them. Heat always flows from the warmer to the cooler object.
Orbital Diagram
Shorthand method of writing the location of electrons by orbital.
Activation Energy
The minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction
Rules for Writing Lewis Dot Structures
- Total the Valence Electrons and Update during each step.
- Form a single bond between the central atom and each surrounding atom (each bond uses two electrons).
- Place electrons around the outer atoms until you run out or they each have eight electrons around them. (Hydrogen and Helium can only have two electrons around them).
- Place any remaining electrons around the central atom.
- Does each atom other than hydrogen have eight electrons around it?
- Rearrange (share) electrons so that all atoms other than hydrogen have eight electrons around them.
Which has the smallest atomic radius?
A. fluorine B. chlorine C. bromine D. iodine
F
(least number of energy levels)
Half Life
The time it takes for the amount of a radioactive element to decay by half.
immiscible
Will not dissolve in water.
What at problems where there with the Rutherford model of the atom?
In the equation:
2Na + Cl₂→ 2NaCl
How many grams of NaCl are produced from 3.75 moles of Cl₂?
- 75 moles Cl₂ x ( 2moles NaCl/1 mole Cl₂ ) x ( 58.5g NaCl / 1 mol NaCl =
- 75 g NaCl
pH Scale
pH = (-) log [H+]
pOH = - log [OH-]
pH + pOH = 14
[H+] = 2nd Log (-) pH
[OH-] = 2nd Log (-) pOH
[H+] [OH-] = 1E-14
Products
Substance(s) being made. Right side of the equation.
Exothermic
An exothermic reaction is a chemical reaction that releases energy in the form of light or heat.
Anion
Negatively charged Ions. Anions are negatively charged because they have gained an electron(s) (electrons are negative). In general, anions are nonmetals.
Predict the element formed and write a balanced nuclear equation for the following statement:
Uranium-238 decays by alpha emission to form __________.
Solvent
The component doing the dissolving.
The component in the largest amount.
Water is the universal solvent.
Endothermic
Reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat.
Heat of Fusion
The energy required to change a gram of a substance from the solid to the liquid state without changing its temperature.
Le Chatlier’s Principle
Properties of Bases
Bitter and slippery
Kinetic Energy
The energy an object has due to its motion.
What is the orbital diagram for Silicon?
Nucleus
The center of an atom. Contains the protons and neutrons. Since neutrons have no charge and protons are positively charged, the nucleus has an overall positive charge.
Gas
One of four main states of matter, composed of molecules in constant random motion. Unlike a solid, a gas has no fixed shape and will take on the shape of the space available. Unlike a liquid, the intermolecular forces are very small; it has no fixed volume and will expand to fill the space available.
Vapor Pressure
The pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in a closed container.
How much solute will not dissolve if I have 80g of Potassium Nitrate in 100g of Water at 30C?
35g Potassium Nitrate
What is the electron configuration of Krypton?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁶
[Ar] 4s² 3d¹⁰ 4p⁶
Properties of Acids
Sour
What is the molarity of a solution in which 58 g of NaCl are dissolved in 1.0 L of solution?
1.0 M
Polyatomic Ionic Formulas
- Metal written first, Polyatomic Ion is written second 2. Use criss-cross method and subscripts to insure sum of charges = 0 3. When using a subscript for polyatomic ions: place a parentheses around the polyatomic formula, put the subscript outside of the parentheses
Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass is neither created or destroyed during a chemical reaction - it is conserved.
Mass Reactants = Mass Products
How does a reaction at equilibrium shift when reactants are removed?
Reaction shifts to the left to make more reactant.
How does a reaction at equilibrium shift when products are removed?
Reaction shifts to the right to make more product.
IUPAC Rules for Alkane Nomenclature
IUPAC Rules for Alkane Nomenclature
- Find and name the longest continuous carbon chain.
- Identify and name groups attached to this chain.
- Number the chain consecutively, starting at the end nearest a substituent group.
- Designate the location of each substituent group by an appropriate number and name.
- Assemble the name, listing groups in alphabetical order using the full name (e.g. cyclopropyl before isobutyl).
The prefixes di, tri, tetra etc., used to designate several groups of the same kind, are not considered when alphabetizing.
Which has the largest atomic radius?
K
Na
Rb
Li
Rb
(most energy levels)
Plastic
Long chain organic compounds that can be molded or formed into shapes, films, or fibers.
What do the symbols in the following equation represent:
Q=mC(Delta T)
How many atoms are in 2.7 moles of iron?
2.7 moles Fe x (6.02x10²³ atoms Fe/1 mole Fe) =
1.6 x 10²⁴atoms Fe
Diatomic Molecule
If these elements appear by themselves in an equation, the must be in pairs with the subscript 2.
Na + MgCl₂ →
2Na + MgCl₂ →2NaCl + Mg Single Replacement
Intramolecular Forces
Attractive forces WITHIN a molecule (Ionic & Covalent Bonds)
These bonds are stronger than intermolecular forces.
miscible
Will dissolve in water.
Predict the products of and write a balanced equation from the following statement:
HCl + Zn →
2HCl + Zn →ZnCl₂ + H₂
Single Replacement
Principle Energy Level
The possible locations around an atom where electrons having specific energy values (quantum number) may be found. Divided into sublevels s, p, d, and f.
K + Cl₂ →
2K + Cl₂ →2KCl Synthesis
Weak Acid
Weak acids are not fully ionized or dissociated.
Solute
The component being dissolved.
The component in the smallest amount.
How can hydrogen bonding affect the properties of polymers?
Different side groups on the polymer can lend the polymer to ionic bonding or hydrogen bonding between its own chains. These stronger forces typically result in higher tensile strength and higher crystalline melting points.
Radioactivity
When the nucleus of an atom becomes unstable and decays. This tends to happen to large atoms (larger than atomic number 83) becuase the number of protons to neutrons in the nucleus is unbalanced.
Boiling
Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point.
Predict the products of and write a balanced equation from the following statement:
CuCl₂ + H₂S →
CuCl₂ + H₂S →CuS + 2HCl
Double Replacement
Balance the following chemical equation:
__C + __O₂ → __CO₂
1C + 1O₂ → 1CO₂
Mg + I₂ →
Mg + I₂ →MgI₂ Synthesis
IUPAC Rules for Alkyne Nomenclature
IUPAC Rules for Alkyne Nomenclature
- The yne suffix (ending) indicates an alkyne or cycloalkyne.
- The longest chain chosen for the root name must include both carbon atoms of the triple bond.
- The root chain must be numbered from the end nearest a triple bond carbon atom. If the triple bond is in the center of the chain, the nearest substituent rule is used to determine the end where numbering starts.
- The smaller of the two numbers designating the carbon atoms of the triple bond is used as the triple bond locator.
- If several multiple bonds are present, each must be assigned a locator number. Double bonds precede triple bonds in the IUPAC name, but the chain is numbered from the end nearest a multiple bond, regardless of its nature.
Roman Numerals
Above groups/families Roman Numerals represent the number of valence electrons.
When writing the name of an ionic compound which includes a transition metal a Roman Numeral is used to denote the quantity of positive charge associated with that transition metal.
What element is represented by the following orbital diagram?
Fluorine
Polymers
Very long chains of repeating units (monomers)
(Simplest polymer: -(-CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂CH₂-)- =Polyethylene)
Bases
Electron donator.
Yeilds OH- in solution.
H+ Ion acceptor.
Heat Capacity
Heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to change the temperature of a substance
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure resulting from the collisions of atoms and molecules with objects.
How does a reaction at equilibrium shift when more reactants are added?
Reaction shifts to the right to make more product.
When is a photon emitted from an atom?
A photon is emitted as an excited electron returns to its ground state.
9.08 g of Al₂0₃ is equal to how many moles?
9.08 g Al₂0₃ x (1 mole Al₂0₃/101.96 g Al₂0₃) = 0.0890 moles Al₂0₃
Properties of Ionic Compounds
Crystalline Structure High Melting Point Rigid Strong Bond Conduct Electricity (when dissolved or melted) Good Insulators
9.08 g of Al₂0₃ is equal to how many moles?
9.08 g Al₂0₃ x (1 mole Al₂0₃/101.96 g Al₂0₃) = 0.0890 moles Al₂0₃
Which of the following elements has the largest atomic radius?
A. nitrogen B. oxygen C. fluorine D. neon
N
(least number of protons attracting the electrons on the energy levels)
Ionic Compound Formulas
- Metal written first Nonmetal written second 2. Use criss-cross method and subscripts to insure sum of charges = 0
Liquid
Liquid is one of the four fundamental states of matter, and is the only state with a definite volume but no fixed shape. A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, held together by intermolecular bonds.
Summarize how to write formulas for ionics and covalents.
Gases deviate most from ideal behavior under conditions of very ______ temperature and very _______ pressure
low; high
Describe the Bohr Model of an atom.
VSPER
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Most important aspect of determining the shape or geometry of a molecule. The molecule will adopt the shape which minimizes te electron pair repulsion.
Chemical Potential Energy
The energy stored in chemical bonds. (Lines with no Slope on the Heating Curve)
What is the IUPAC name of
How many atoms are in 2.7 moles of iron?
2.7 moles Fe x (6.02x10²³ atoms Fe/1 mole Fe) =
1.6 x 10²⁴atoms Fe
Kinetic Energy
In Thermochemistry, the energy an object possesses due to its change in temperature is called kinetic energy. (Sloped lines on the Heating Curve)
How many grams of KNO₃ should be used to prepare 2.00 L of a .500 M solution?
101 g KNO₃
How many moles are in 3.67 x 10²⁴ molecules of SO₂?
- 67 x 10²⁴ molecules SO₂ x (1 mole SO₂/6.02x10²³ molecules SO₂)=
- 10 moles SO₂
Compound Formation
Compounds are the result of the formation of chemical bonds between two or more different elements, whose atoms lose, gain or share valence electrons to complete their outer shell and attain a noble gas configuration.
This tendency of atoms to have eight electrons in their outer shell is known as the octet rule.
What is the effect of pressure on solubility?
Directly Proportional
As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other increases and vice-versa (e.g., temperature and volume, temperature and pressure)
Period
Horizontal row on the periodic table.
What is the orbital diagram for Sulfur?
Stereo Isomers
A carbon that has 4 different things attached to it is considered “chiral”
There is a mirror image of the molecule, they are stereoisomers or enantiomers, bend light oppositely (optically active)
Definition of a balanced chemical equation:
no atoms are lost or gained
the number of reacting atoms is equal to the number of product atoms
Polar Covalent
A type of covalent bond between two atoms in which electrons are shared unequally. Because of this, one end of the molecule has a slightly negative charge and the other a slightly positive charge.
Empirical Formula
Empirical Formula - A formula that gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
How to speed up the Rate of a Reaction
- Shrink the container or increase concentration. 2. Increase the number of particles. 3. Speed up the particles by adding heat. 4. Break up clumps into individual particles. 5. Use a catalyst.
Balance the following chemical equation:
__C₂H₆ + __O₂ → __CO₂ + __H₂O
2C₂H₆ + 7O₂ → 4CO₂ + 6H₂O
Calculate the concentration of the solute in the diluted solution: 1.00mL of 0.50M NH4Cl diluted to 250.0mL
M1V1 = M2V2
M1 = (M2V2)/(V1)
M1 = (0.5 M x 1 ml)/(250 ml)
M1 = 0.0020M
Calorimeter
The device used to measure the quantity of heat flow in a reaction.
A compound contains 21.6 g of silver and 3.21 g of sulfur, what is the percent composition?
21.6/(21.6+3.21) = 87.1% Ag
3.21/(21.6+3.21) = 12.9%S
What is the molarity of a solution in which 10.0 g of AgNO₃ is dissolved in 500 ml of solution?
0.118 M AgNO₃
How much more solute could I dissolve if I have 10g of Potassium Nitrate in 100g of Water at 30C?
~32g of Potassium Nitrate
Bond Pairs
Pairs of electrons which form a bond.
Electrons
Negatively charged subatomic particles. Electrons can be found in the space around the nucleus. This area is often called the electron cloud. Electrons have NO mass.
Electronegativity
Tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when it combines with another element.
Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period on the periodic table.
Electronegativiy decreases as you go down a group on the periodic table.
Double Displacement
There are two compounds on each side of the equation. During a DD Reaction the positively charged cations in each compound switch places. Also known as Precipitate Reaction. For the reaction to occur a precipitate must be formed. The solubility rules or table are used to confirm this.
AB + CD –> AD + CB
How would you calculate the pH of a solution with a hydronium concentration of 1E-5 M?
pH = -log 1E-5 =5
How much solute will not dissolve if I have 80g of Potassium Nitrate in 100g of Water at 30C?
35g Potassium Nitrate
Boiling Point
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding environmental pressure. At the boiling point the gas and liquid phase exist in equilibrium.
Proton
Positively charged subatomic particle. Contained inside the nucleus. Neutrons and Protons weigh roughly the same (1 atomic mass unit).
Standard Temperature & Pressure (STP) - a shorthand method that can be used when writing word problems.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is that energy which an object has because of its position. It is called potential energy because it has the potential to be converted into other forms of energy, such as kinetic energy. (Lines with no Slope on the Heating Curve
Naming Covalent Compunds
You DO NOT use the “criss-cross” method. Use prefixes. The only time you do not use a prefix is when there is only one of the first nonmetal. Remember : 1-Mono 2-Di etc…
What happens to an exothermic reaction when temperature is lowered?
Heat is a product, so the reaction shifts to the right to make more product.
Dilute
Relatively small amount of solute.
Percent Composition
The amount of a given element in a compound.
Subscript
Small numbers to the lower right of chemical symbols. Represent the number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
O₂
Empirical Formula
Empirical Formula - A formula that gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound.
Melting Point
The melting point of a solid is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid at atmospheric pressure. At the melting point the solid and liquid phase exist in equilibrium.
Catalyst
A substance that causes a chemical reaction to happen more quickly.
Polyatomic Ion
Polyatomic Ions ions made up of more than one atom; acts as an individual ion in a compound; charge applies to entire group of atoms.
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element which have a different Mass Number due to a differing number of neutrons.
The symbol for an Isotope is the element symbol followed by the Mass Number, for example:
Na-23 and Na-24
In the equation:
NH₄NO₃ → N₂O + 2H₂O
How many grams of H₂O are produced if you are given 50 g of NH₄NO₃?
50 g NH₄NO₃ x (1 mole NH₄NO₃ /80.04 gNH₄NO₃) x
(2 moles H₂O / 1 mole NH₄NO₃) x (18.02 g H₂O/ 1 mol H₂O) =
22.5 g H₂O
Freezing
Freezing or solidification is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. (Liquid to Solid)
What is the electron configuration of Beryllium?
1s² 2s²
What are the four Quantum Numbers? What do they stand for?
Which has the highest electronegativity?
Na
Al
S
Cl
Cl
What is the IUPAC name of
Condensation (Precipitation)
The conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid.
Percent Mass
Solubility Curve
Used to determine the mass of solute in 100g (100ml) of water at a given temperature.
What is wrong with the following orbital diagram?
This diagram does not follow Hund’s Rule. Electrons must fill energy levels from lowest to highest.
Write a chemical equation from the following word equation:
Water decomposes into hydrogen gas and oxygen gas:
2H₂O → 2H₂ + O₂
What is the Lewis dot structure of Br₂?
How to PREDICT PRODUCTS of the 4 Main Types of Chemical Reactions.
Precipitate
Formation of a solid in a solution.
The Mole
A unit of measure.
1 mole = the atomic mass of an element
and
1 mole = 6.02 E23 atoms, particles, molecules, units, etc.
Write a chemical equation from the following word equation:
Sodium reacts with fluorine to form sodium fluoride
2Na + F₂–> 2NaF
What is the IUPAC name of
pH, pOH, [H+], [OH-] Calculation Road Map
Write a chemical equation from the following word equation:
Magnesium reacts with aluminum chloride to form magnesium chloride and aluminum.
3Mg + 2AlCl₃–> 3MgCl₂ + 2Al
Atomic Size
Size of an atom.
Depends on the number of energy levels and the overall charge of the nucleus (the nucleus’s charge depends on the number of protons).
As you go down a group you are adding energy levels (rings around the nucleus) so the atomic size increases.
As you go across a period the atomic size decreases because the energy levels (which contain negative electrons) are increasingly attracted to the positive protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Coefficients
The large numbers in front of chemical formulas. Represent the number of molecules of the substance in the reaction.
2Cl
What is the solubility of Potassium Nitrate at 50 C?
86 g Potassium Nitrate
Diatomic Molecules
If these elements appear by themselves in an equation, the must be in pairs with the subscript 2.
(H₂, N₂, O₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂)
Synthesis or Combination
Two or more elements combine to make one product.
A + B –> AB
Calculate the pH of a solution with a Hydronium ion concentration of 1.3E-9 M
pH= -log(1.3E-9) =8.89
Covalent/Molecular Bonding
Nonmetals SHARE electrons
Cation Formation
Metals give electrons to become like the nearest noble gas.
Percent Composition
The amount of a given element in a compound.
Vaporization (Evaporation)
The conversion of a liquid into a gas.
Actual Yeild
The amount of product which is actually formed when the reaction is carried out in the laboratory.
Theoretical Yeild
The maximum amount of product that is CALCULATED to be formed from the given amounts of reactants.
Dimensional Analysis
A method of mathmatical analysis which involves converting between units.
Inversely Proportional
As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases and vice-versa (e.g., pressure and volume)
What is the electron configuration of Zinc?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d¹⁰
[Ar] 4s² 3d¹⁰
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Have double or triple bonds (they can react and get more atoms in the molecule; alkenes and alkynes)
Steps for finding Empirical Formula from percent composition
How many moles are in 3.67 x 10²⁴ molecules of SO₂?
- 67 x 10²⁴ molecules SO₂ x (1 mole SO₂/6.02x10²³ molecules SO₂)=
- 10 moles SO₂
Molarity
Expression of Concentration ( [] )
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Gases consist of tiny particles.
- These particles are so small, their volume can be assumed to be negligible (zero).
- The particles are in constant, random motion, colliding with the walls of the container. These collisions with the walls cause the pressure exerted by the gas.
- The particles are assumed not to attract or repel each other.
- The kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.
(As the temperature increases the energy increases)
Octet Rule
All atoms other than hydrogen and helium bond to fill their valence shell with eight electrons.
Fission
Symbols used in writing chemical equations
Parent Chain
Longest carbon chain
What happens to an endothermic reaction when temperature is lowered?
Heat is a reactant, so the reaction will shift to the left to make more reactant.
NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
When an acid and base react in solution to form salt and water.
How would removing ammonia, NH3, affect the equilibrium of the following reaction?
N2 + 3H2 ⇔ 2NH3 + heat
Concentrated
A relatively large amount of solute.
- What is the IUPAC name for the following compound?
2,2,4-trimethylpentane
How would temperature and pressure affect the equilibrium of the following reaction?
N2 + 3H2 ⇔ 2NH3 + heat
Colligative Properties
properties that depend on the concentration of solute, but not on the chemical identity of the solute.
(Vapor Pressure Lowering, Boiling Point Elevation, Freezing Point Depression, and Osmotic Pressure)
Covalent or Molecular Compounds (Molecules)
The first word gives name of the element that appears first preceded by a prefix that shows number of atoms in that element. Do NOT use the prefix mono before the name of the first element. The second word consists of a prefix designating the number of atoms of that element, the stem name of the second element, and the suffix -ide.
Anion Formation
Nonmetals recieve electrons when forming an ionic compound so that their electron configuration will be like the nearest noble gas.
When adding and subtracting with Significant Figures, ___________________.
keep the least number of decimal places
A compound contains 21.6 g of silver and 3.21 g of sulfur, what is the percent composition?
21.6/(21.6+3.21) = 87.1% Ag
3.21/(21.6+3.21) = 12.9%S
How much solute would crystallize out of solution once a solution of 85g of Potassium Nitrate in 100g of Water at 50C is cooled to 20C?
55g Potassium Nitrate
Monomer
the basic unit of the polymer
What is a condensation (step-growth) polymer?
A polymer formed from two different monomers that are joined together with the elimination of a small molecule. Nylon is a condensation polymer.
Anions
Anions are named by adding the suffix -ide to the stem of the name of the nonmetal from which they are derived. N³⁻ = Nitride O²⁻ = Oxide F⁻ = Flouride
Strong Acid
Completely dissociates.
Predict the products of and write a balanced equation from the following statement:
Mg + I₂ →
Mg + I₂ →MgI₂
Synthesis
Calorimetry Steps
- Use a well known substance (water) 2. Run the reaction and let heat go into or out of the water 3.Measure the waters change in temperature
How does a reaction at equilibrium shift when more products are added?
Reaction shifts to the left to make more reactant.
Which has the largest atomic radius?
K
Na
Rb
Li
Rb
(most energy levels)
Temperature
A measure of the intensity of heat, i.e. the hotness or coldness of a sample. or object.
What are both of the symbols for each of the following types of nuclear decay:
Alpha, Beta, Gamma
Hydrogen
Group 1 Nonmetal
Which has the highest electronegativity?
Na
Al
S
Cl
Cl
Decomposition Reaction
One reactant breaks down into two or more elements.
AB –> A + B
Phase Changes
Subscripts
Small numbers to the lower right of chemical symbols. Represent the number of atoms of each element in a molecule.
0₂
Cations
Positively Charged Ions. In general, cations are metals.
Thermoplastics
Long chains of organic compounds which have NO cross-links. These may be melted and recycled into new shapes (products).
Thermosetting Plastics
Long Chain Organic Compounds which HAVE cross-links which inhibits melting and thus the recycling of these products. Once set in a certain shape they can not be remolded.
(or thermosetting, plastics are synthetic
materials that strengthen during being
heated, but cannot be successfully
remolded or reheated after their initial
heat-forming. )
Homologous
A Homologous Series is a group of organic chemical compounds, usually listed in order of increasing size,
that have a similar structure (and hence also similar properties) and whose structures differ only by the number of CH2 units in the main carbon chain.
(The simplest example of a homologous series in organic chemistry is that of alkanes)
Which has the smallest atomic radius?
A. fluorine B. chlorine C. bromine D. iodine
F
(least number of energy levels)
What is the effect of temperature on solubility?
Hydronium Ion
[H+]
Hund’s Rule
When filling sublevels other than s, electrons are placed in individual orbitals before they are paired up.
Electrons fill like people do on a bus. You would never sit right next to someone you do not know if there are free seats available, unless of course all the seats are taken then you must pair up.
So, when working with the p sublevel, electrons fill like this…up, up, up….down, down, down…
Balance the following chemical equation:
__Al₂(SO₄)₃ + __Ca(OH)₂ → __Al(OH)₃ + __CaSO₄
Al₂(SO₄)₃ + 3Ca(OH)₂ → 2Al(OH)₃ + 3CaSO₄
What would the Lewis dot structure of OC be?
Collision Theory
Molecules have to collide in a certain way with a certain amount of activation energy in order to form a new product.
Solidification
Freezing or solidification is a phase transition in which a liquid turns into a solid when its temperature is lowered below its freezing point. (Liquid to Solid)
Isomers
Same formula, different structure
Which has the lowest electronegativity?
F
I
Br
Cl
I
NaOH + HClO₄ →
NaOH + HClO₄ →NaClO₄+ H₂O Double Replacement
What is the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.5g of NaCl in enough water to make 125 ml of solution?
The heat lost in a reaction (Q lost) = ?
Q lost = Q gained
Valence Electrons
Electrons found on the outer energy level. Represented by Roman Numerals. Transition Elements do not have Roman Numerals which denote their valence electrons.
“Like Dissolves Like”
Not everything will dissolve in everything. Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes. Nonpolar solutes dissolve nonpolar solutes. Water is polar so it dissolves polar solutes.
Sublevel
Principal energy levels are broken down into sublevels designated s, p, d, or f upon which electrons travel.
In the equation:
2Na + Cl₂→ 2NaCl
How many moles of Na are needed if 285 g of NaCl are produced?
285g NaCl x (1 mole NaCl/ 58.5 g NaCl) x (2 moles Na / 2 moles NaCl) =
4.87 moles Na.
What is the electron configuration of Calcium?
1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s²
[Ar] 4s²
Diatomic Molecule
If these elements appear by themselves in an equation, the must be in pairs with the subscript 2.
Limiting Reagant/Reactant
Determines the amount of product that can be formed.
The reactant/reagant that is completely used up during a reaction.
(In the attached picture, beef patties are limiting how many hamburgers we can make.)
IUPAC Rules for Alkene Nomenclature
- The ene suffix (ending) indicates an alkene or cycloalkene.
- The longest chain chosen for the root name must include both carbon atoms of the double bond.
- The root chain must be numbered from the end nearest a double bond carbon atom. If the double bond is in the center of the chain, the nearest substituent rule is used to determine the end where numbering starts.
- The smaller of the two numbers designating the carbon atoms of the double bond is used as the double bond locator. If more than one double bond is present the compound is named as a diene, triene or equivalent prefix indicating the number of double bonds, and each double bond is assigned a locator number.
Dimensional Analysis
A method of mathmatical analysis which involves converting between units.
Neutrons
Neutrally charged subatomic particle. (No charge) Contained inside the nucleus. Neutrons and Protons weigh roughly the same (1 atomic mass unit)
Intermolecular Forces
Attractive forces BETWEEN molecules.
Van Der Waals or London Dispersion Forces are the weakest type of intermolecular force and hydrogen bonds are the strongest.
Excess reagent/reactant
The reactant/reagant which is not completely used up during a reaction.
Predict the products of and write a balanced equation from the following word statement:
Methane (C3H8) reacts with Oxygen gas to form __________.
Positive Exponents in Scientific Notation
Postive Exponents mean move the decimal to the right when changing a number to standard notation.
HCl + Zn →
2HCl + Zn →ZnCl₂ + H₂ Single Replacement
What is the orbital diagram for Nitrogen?
Electronegativity
Tendency of an atom to attract electrons to itself when it combines with another element.
Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period on the periodic table.
Electronegativity decreases as you go down a group on the periodic table.
Ideal Gas Law
Coefficients
The large numbers in front of chemical formulas. Represent the number of molecules of the substance in the reaction.
2Cl
Which has the lowest electronegativity?
F
I
Br
Cl
I
If the [H+] =1E-5 in a Coca-Cola what is the concentration of [OH-]? Is the solution acidic, basic, or neutral?
[H+] [OH-] = 1E-14
[OH-] = (1E-14) / ([H+])
[OH-] = (1E-14) / (1E-5)
[OH-] = 1E-9
The solution is acidic because 1E-5 is less than 1E-7.
Is the solution unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated, if I have 30 g of Potassium Nitrate in 100 g of Water at 30 C?
Unsaturated
What is the IUPAC name of
What are the conversions between pressure units? (What amount of atm equals what amount of kPa, psi, torr, etc)
1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa
What is the percent composition of oxygen in CuSO₄?
mass of CuSO₄= 63.546 + 32.065 + 4(15.999) = 159.7 grams
Mass of oxygen = 4(15.999) = 64 grams
(64/159.7) x (100%) = 40.1. %O
Summarize the rules for naming ionic and covalent compounds.
Fusion
Is the solution unsaturated, saturated, or supersaturated, if I have 30 g of Potassium Nitrate in 100 g of Water at 30 C?
Unsaturated
Saturated
Contains as much solute as it can at that temperature.
If you add more solute it will not dissolve.
Synthetic or Engineered Polymers
- Thermoplastics
- Thermosetting plastics
- Elastomers (Rubber)
What is the orbital diagram for Oxygen?
What mass of copper (II) sulfide is equal to 4.79 x 10²² atoms?
- 79 x 10²² atoms CuS x (1 mole CuS/6.02x10²³ atoms CuS) x (95.61 g CuS/1 mole CuS) =
- 61 g CuS
Heat
A form of energy that flows between two samples of matter because of their differences in temperature.
Supersaturated
Contains more solute than it should at that temperature. Ussually the solution is heated to allow that much solute to dissolve and then cooled back down.
If you add solute to a supersaturated solution the “super” part (amount over the saturation point) will crystallize out of solution.
Polymerization
the process by which the synthesis of polymers occurs.
(the process by which monomers build polymers)
Heating Curve
A plot of the temperature versus time.
Saturated Hydrocarbons
What is the Lewis dot structure of XeF₄?
CuCl₂ + H₂S →
CuCl₂ + H₂S →CuS + 2HCl Double Replacement
alkane
hydrocarbon with single bonds between all carbons
Predict the products of and write a balanced equation from the following statement:
C₄H₆ + O₂ →
2C₄H₆ + 7O₂ →4CO₂ + 6H₂O
Combustion
Pauli Exclusion Principle
If there are two electrons in an orbital, they must have opposite (paired) spins.
Determine the conjugate acid/base pairs.
NH3 + H2O —> NH4+ + OH-
Solution
Solute + Solvent
Given the following reaction: S₈ + 4Cl₂ → 4S₂Cl₂. If there is 200g of sulfur and 100g of chlorine, what mass of disulfur dichloride will be produced?
- Perform a mass-to-mass calculation between sulfur and disulfur dichloride.
200g S₈ x (1mol S₈ / 256.5g S₈) x (4mol S₂Cl₂ / 1 mol S₈) x (135g S₂Cl₂ / 1 mol S₂Cl₂) = 421g S₂Cl₂.
- Perform a mass-to-mass calculation between chlorine and disulfur dichloride.
100g Cl₂ x (1mol Cl₂ / 70.91g Cl₂) x (4mol S₂Cl₂ / 4 mol Cl₂) x (135g S₂Cl₂ / 1 mol S₂Cl₂) = 190.4g S₂Cl₂.
The limiting reactant is chlorine (Cl₂ ) because… it produced only 190.4g S₂Cl₂.
The excess reactant is sulfur (S₈) because… it would have produced 421g S₂Cl₂.
What mass of copper (II) sulfide is equal to 4.79 x 10²² atoms?
- 79 x 10²² atoms CuS x (1 mole CuS/6.02x10²³ atoms CuS) x (95.61 g CuS/1 mole CuS) =
- 61 g CuS
In the equation:
C₃H₈ + 5O₂→ 3CO₂+ 4H₂O
How many moles of CO₂are produced when 7 moles of C₃H₈ are burned?
7 moles C₃H₈ x (3 moles CO₂ / 1 mole C₃H₈) =
21 moles CO₂
Steps for finding Empirical Formula from percent composition
What is the percent composition of oxygen in CuSO₄?
mass of CuSO₄= 63.546 + 32.065 + 4(15.999) = 159.7 grams
Mass of oxygen = 4(15.999) = 64 grams
(64/159.7) x (100%) = 40.1. %O
Evaporation versus Boiling
thermochemical equation
thermochemical equation
- balanced chemical equations with heat changes taken into account
- think of it as (and treat it as) a reactant or a product
Enthalpy (H)
-the heat content of a system (or chemical reaction)
CaO (s) + H₂O (l) → Ca(OH)₂(s) + 65.2 kJ
Change in H = - 65.2 kJ
Endo or Exo?
Exo
heat is a product and change in H is negative
2 NaHCO₃ (s) + 129 kJ → Na₂O (s) + H₂O (g) + CO₂(g)
Change in H = +129 kJ
Endo or Exo ? How to tell?
Endo
heat is a reactant and change in H is positive
Endo or Exothermic?
Exothermic reaction graph
five ways to tell if a reaction is exothermic
graph slopes down
heat is given off (to the surroundings)
change in H is negative
temperature of “surroundings” increases
heat is written as a product
five ways tell if a reaction is endothermic
graph slopes up
heat is absorbed (from the surroundings)
change in H is positive
temperature of “surroundings” decreases
heat is written as a reactant
Phase Diagram most substances (e.g. CO2)
slight positive slope; more dens in (l) phase;
triple point: s, l, g in equilib.
critical point: T and P above which there is no distinction between l and g
Phase Diagram H2O
negative slope bc H2O has lower density in (s) than (l); increase in P favors more dense version.
Boyle’s Law
The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional at a constant temperature.
P1V1 = P2V2
Charles’ Law
The volume of a gas is directly proportional with the KELVIN temperature at a constant pressure.
V1T2 =V2T1
Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
- Gases consist of tiny particles.
- These particles are so small, their volume can be assumed to be negligible (zero).
- The particles are in constant, random motion, colliding with the walls of the container. These collisions with the walls cause the pressure exerted by the gas.
- The particles are assumed not to attract or repel each other.
- The kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.
(As the temperature increases the energy increases)
Standard Temperature & Pressure (STP) - a shorthand method that can be used when writing word problems.
Barometer
Measures atomospheric pressure.
Combined Gas Law
P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
Ideal Gas Law
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Molar Volume of a Gas
1 mole of any gas at STP = 22.4 Liters
Kinetic Energy
The energy an object has due to its motion.
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure resulting from the collisions of atoms and molecules with objects.
What are the conversions between pressure units? (What amount of atm equals what amount of kPa, psi, torr, etc)
1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa
If 2.5g of sulfur hexafluoride is introduced to an evacuated 500.0mL container at 83*C, what is the pressure, in atmospheres, inside the container?
PV = nRT
2.5g SF6 (1mole SF6/ 146.08 g SF6) = 0.017 moles SF6
P = (nRT)/V
P =[ (0.017 moles)x(0.08205746 L atm/K mol)x(83+273K)/(.5 L)
P =0.99atm
If the total pressure of a two gas system is 100 torr and the partial pressure of one gas is 70 torr, what is the pressure of the other gas?
Pother = 30 torr
Gases deviate most from ideal behavior under conditions of very ______ temperature and very _______ pressure
low; high
According to _____________ law, pressure and volume are ______________ proportional provided all other factors remain constant. Mathematically, this means that their ____________ is a constant.
Boyle’s; inversely; temperature
If pressure is constant, the volume of a sample of gas _____________ as temperature increases.
increases
At constant pressure, the volume of a sample of gas is ___________ proportional to temperature as measured on the ____________ temperature scale
directly; Kelvin
A balloon with a volume of 2.0 L is filled with a gas at 3 atmospheres. If the pressure is reduced to 0.5 atmospheres without a change in temperature, what would be the volume of the balloon?
Since the temperature does not change, Boyle’s law can be used. Boyle’s gas law can be expressed as:
PiVi = PfVf (i=initial and f=final)
To find the final volume, solve the equation for Vf:
Vf = PiVi/Pf
Vi = 2.0 L
Pi = 3 atm
Pf = 0.5 atm
Vf = (2.0 L)(3 atm)/(0.5 atm)
Vf = 6 L/0.5
Vf = 12 L
Answer:
The volume of the balloon will expand to 12 L.
A 600 mL sample of nitrogen is heated from 27 °C to 77 °C at constant pressure. What is the final volume?
The first step to solving gas law problems should be converting all temperatures to absolute temperatures. This is the most common place mistakes are made in this type of homework problem.
K = 273 + °C
Ti = initial temperature = 27 °C
K = 273 + 27
Ki = 300 K
Tf = final temperature = 77 °C
K = 273 + 77
Kf = 350 K
The next step is to use Charles’ law to find the final volume. Charles’ law is expressed as:
ViTf = VfTi
where
Vi and Ti is the initial volume and temperature
Vf and Tf is the final volume and temperature
Solve the equation for Vf:
Vf = ViTf/Ti
Enter the known values and solve for Vf.
Vf = (600 mL)(350 K)/(300 K)
Vf = 700 mL
Answer:
The final volume after heating will be 700 mL.
The pressure of a mixture of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and oxygen is 150 kPa. What is the partial pressure of oxygen if the partial pressures of the nitrogen and carbon dioxide are 100 kPA and 24 kPa, respectively?
P = Pnitrogen + Pcarbon dioxide + Poxygen
150 kPa = 100 kPa + 24 kPa + Poxygen
Poxygen = 150 kPa - 100 kPa - 24 kPa
Poxygen = 26 kPa
A cylinder contain a gas of volume 30 L, at a pressure of 110 kPa and a temperature of 420 K. Find the temperature of the gas which has a volume 40 L at a pressure of 120 kPa.
Vi = 30 L, Pi = 110 kPa, Ti = 420 K, Vf = 40 L, Pf = 120 kPa
Final Temperature(Tf) = PfVfTi / PiVi
Tf= (120kPa x 40L x 420K) / (110kPa x 30L)
Tf = 610.91 K
A cylinder contain a gas of volume 10 L, at a pressure of 80 kPa and a temperature of 200 K. Find the temperature of the gas which has a volume 20 L at a temperature of 220 K.
Vi = 10 L, Pi = 80 kPa, Ti = 200 K, Vf = 20 L, Tf = 220 kPa
Final Pressure(Pf) = PiViTf / TiVf
Pf= (80 x 10 x 220) / (200 x 20)
Pf = 44 kPa
Inversely Proportional
As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases and vice-versa (e.g., pressure and volume)
Directly Proportional
As the value of one variable increases, the value of the other increases and vice-versa (e.g., temperature and volume, temperature and pressure)
Vapor Pressure
The pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation of a liquid (or solid) above a sample of the liquid (or solid) in a closed container.
Ideal Gas
A gas that behaves exactly as the Kinetic Molecular Theory describes
Gases follow ideal behavior under conditions of very high temperatures and very low pressures
Manometer
Measures the pressure of a gas in a closed container.
A balloon contains 30.0 L of helium gas at 103kPa. What is the volume of the helium when the balloon rises to an altitude where the pressure is only 25.0 kPa?
124 L
A balloon inflated in a room at 24 c has a volume of 4.00 L. The balloon is then heated to a temperature of 58.0 c . What is the new volume if the pressure remains constant?
4.46 L
At 34.0 c the pressure inside a nitrogen filled tennis ball with a volume of 0.148 L is 212 kPa. How many moles of nitrogen gas are in the tennis ball?
0.0122 moles
