homeostasis, puberty, plant hormones Flashcards
2 types of nervous systems in the human nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS)
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central nervous system (CNS)
Central nervous system (CNS) – the brain and spinal cord - coordinator for rest of the nervous system - contains relay neurones
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
peripheral nervous system (PNS) – all of the nerves in the body - each nerve is made up of lots of specialised cells called neurones - contains sensory and motor neurones
neurone structure - cell body
contains most cellular structures e.g. nucleus, mitochondria
neurone structure - dendrites
highly branched to form connections with other neurones at synapses
neurone structure - axon
long fibre of neurone
neurone structure - axon terminal
highly branched to form connections with other neurones at the nerve ending
reflex response
- doesnt involve brain as coordinator - uses spinal cord
- involuntary/ automatic meaning that they happen without you consciously deciding to carry out the response
- Very rapid & automatic to protect the body from potential damage such as touching a hot surface
sensory neurone
long
cell body containing nucleus at center of axon
relay neurone
short + highly branched
Has an unmyelinated axon -important for role in CNS
motor neurone
cell body at top of cell
reflex arc example - stepping on sharp pin
- Pressure of pin = stimulus & is detected by receptor on the sole of the foot
- Triggers the electrical nerve impulse to start and travel up the sensory neuron to the spinal cord which acts as the coordinator
- The impulse passes across the synapse to a relay neurone in the CNS
- The spinal cord sends the impulse to the motor neurone via another synapse
- Another impulse is simultaneously sent to the brain to ensure there is a conscious awareness of the stimulus but the brain isn’t involved in the response.
- the motor neurone sends the impulse to the effector which contracts and brings about the response of moving the foot away from the pin
K
Some reflexes are not coordinated by the spinal cord such as the eyes.
Some reflex talks don’t have really new ones so the impulse is able to very quickly be transmitted straight from the sensory neurone to the motor neurone
synapses
Neurones never touch each other, they are separated by junctions (gaps) called synapses
In a reflex arc, there are synapses between the sensory and relay neurones, and the relay and motor neurones
Chemicals called neurotransmitters (such as dopamine and serotonin) are released into the synaptic cleft and diffuse across it (down a concentration gradient)
synapse process
brain - cerebral cortex
this is the outer layer of the brain which is highly folded and is responsible for higher-order processes such as intelligence, memory, consciousness and personality
brain - cerebellum
this is underneath the cerebral cortex and is responsible for balance, muscle coordination and movement
brain - medulla
this region controls unconscious activities such as heart rate and breathing
brain - pituitary gland
responsible for regulating many body functions such as controlling the activity of other glands
Mapping regions of the brain - 3 methods
Neuroscientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to particular functions by…
studying patients with brain damage
electrically stimulating different parts of the brain
using MRI scanning techniques
Mapping regions of the brain - studying patients with brain damage
Patients with brain damage can be studied to see what effect it has on them physically or on their personality or capabilities
Mapping regions of the brain - electrically stimulating different parts of the brain
Tiny electrodes can be pushed into different parts of the brain, tiny jolts of electricity stimulate these regions and the effects can be observed
For example, if a region in the medulla responsible for movement is stimulated, the movement caused can be observed
Mapping regions of the brain - MRI scans
- MRI scanners are very important diagnostic tools used to study the brain and other regions of the body using magnetic fields and the effect these have on protons in the water molecules of the body
- Functional MRIs can produce images of different regions of the brain that are active during different activities like listening to music or recalling a memory (the scanners can detect changes in blood flow – more active regions of the brain have increased blood flow)
retina
Contains receptor cells called rods and cones, which are sensitive to light
fovea
the maximum density of cone cells is found here, as most of the light from the lens is refracted to this point.
sclera
tough outer coating to protect the eye.
cornea
where 70% of the light is refracted into the eye
optic nerve
Where the information from the receptor cells collects and the nerve impulses from the Retina are carried to the brain
iris
Controls the amount of light entering the eye.
ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments
changes the shape of the lens.
pupil
Hole which lets light into the eye
lens
Reflects light onto the retina.
pupil dialation
Stimulus - not enough light
Receptor - rod and cone cells
Coordinator – brain
Effector - radial muscles contract & circular muscles relax.
Response - people get bigger and more light enters
pupil contraction
Stimulus – too much light
Receptor - rod and cone cells
Coordinator – brain
Effector - radial muscles relax & circular muscles contract.
Response - people get smaller and less light enters
To focus on a near object:
To focus on a near object:
a lot of focusing is needed so
so ciliary muscles contract
suspensory ligaments loosen
lens is thicker and refract light strongly
rays of light converge on the retina
to focus on a distant object:
to focus on a distant object:
less focusing is needed
so ciliary muscles relax
suspensory ligaments are pulled tight
lenses is thinner & only slightly refract light rays
rays of light converge on the retina
Myopia
Myopia is caused because the lens is too strong, or the eyeball is too long.
one way to correct myopia is to use spectacles or hard or soft contact lenses with concave lenses.
In myopia the image is focused in front of the retina
hyperopia
hyperopia is caused because the lens is too weak, or the eyeball is too short
One way to correct hyperopia is to wear spectacles or hard or soft contact lenses with convex lenses
in hyperopia the image is focused behind the retina
Laser surgery
lasers can be used to change the shape of the cornea (changing how it refracts light onto the retina) although like all surgical procedures there is risk of unexpected damage occurring during the procedure which could lead to worse vision or an infection
For myopia: the cornea is slimmed down, reducing the refractive power
For hyperopia: the cornea shape is changed so the refractive power is increased
accommodation
The ability of the eye to change its focus by adjusting the curvature of the lens
Lens replacement surgery
Lens replacement surgery completely replaces the lens of the eye with a plastic artificial lens (rather than changing the shape of the cornea during laser eye surgery) but this procedure is more invasive than laser surgery and carries a risk of damage occurring to the retina leading to complete sight loss
thermoregulatory centre
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain
The thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood
The skin contains temperature receptors and sends nervous impulses to the thermoregulatory centre
Monitoring of Body Temperature
The human body needs to maintain a temperature at which enzymes work best, around 37°C
Processes such as respiration release energy as heat; and the body loses heat energy to its surroundings – the energy gained and lost must be regulated to maintain a constant core body temperature
If the body temperature is too high then
blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) - more blood flow to skin so more heat to be carried by the blood to the skin, where it can be lost to the air increasing heat loss
Sweat glands excrete sweat which cools the skin as it evaporates
Hairs lie flat against the skin allowing air to freely circulate reducing the insulating effect of air against the skin increasing heat loss
If the body temperature is too low then
blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction) - less blood flow to skin so less heat to be carried by the blood to the skin, where it can be lost to the air reducing heat loss
sweating stops
Hair erector muscles will contract so hair stands upright trapping air around the skin so more insulation and less heat loss
Skeletal muscles contract rapidly and shivering occurs - this is involuntary and requires energy from respiration (which releases energy as heat)
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external changes
e.g. enzyme action and all cell functions
examples of homeostasis
Blood glucose concentration
Body temperature
Water levels
Control of Homeostasis
Maintaining controlled conditions within the body is involuntary (automatic) control
This means that the brain stem (or non-conscious part of the brain) and the spinal cord are involved in maintaining homeostasis – you don’t consciously maintain your body temperature or blood glucose level
control systems for homeostasis
These automatic control systems may involve nervous responses or chemical responses
All control systems include:
* Cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment)
* Coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and pancreas) that receive and process information from receptors
* Effectors (muscles or glands) which bring about responses which restore optimum levels
Hormones
A hormone is a chemical Messenger. This means that they send signals around the body in order to bring about a response in a target organ.