history medicine Flashcards
what ideas did medieval doctors believe in
the ideas of Hippocratic and Galenic methods and treatments
who was Hippocrates
He was a doctor born in Greece in about 460 BC. He developed the idea of the four humors
what was the theory of the four humors
this was the idea that the human body was made up of four substances: Blood, Phlegm, Black bile and yellow bile and it was believed that one of these humors being out of balance is what caused illness
who was Galen
Galen was a Roman doctor born in 129 AD he developed the theory of opposites which was an idea about how people could be treated using the four humors
why where Galens works on anatomy not usefully for learning about the human body
His work on anatomy was based on dissecting pigs so lots of his findings weren’t accurate when referring to humans
what did medieval treatments consist of
medieval treatments used a combination of supernatrual treatments such as prayer and astrology and natural treatments (encouraged by Galen and Hippocrates) such as bloodletting and herbal remedies
how did doctors take the four humours into account when trying to help patients
doctors treatments where attempts of supporting what the body tried to do itself for example if someone had a bloody nose they belivied that this was the body’s was of removing excess blood so they would use a treatment like bloodletting
who provided treatment in medieval times
monasteries provided care for people in their local area their treatments where based of prayer and herbal remedies
private physicians who had been trained at university could be afforded by wealthy people
barber surgeons where often used by the less wealthy they would often use herbal treatments and could perform small surgeries such as pulling teeth
how did Christianity effect the development of medicine in the medieval period
the church supported the teachings of Galen as he believed in a single God which was in line with Christian beliefs.
the Christian church controlled the teachings in university so the ideas of Galen where continued to be taught and believed. questioning the ideas of Galen was not encouraged this ultimately hindered the development of medicine
what did Christians believe when it came to treating people
they believed that it was there duty to care for the sick like Jesus did but not cure them as it was thought illness was a punishment from God so curing illness would be going against God’s wishes
what did Islam say about treating illness
unlike Christians Muslims where encouraged to seek out new cures for diseases
who was ibn sina
he was an influential Islamic doctor who wrote the book “the cannon of medicine” in 1025 which helped spread new ideas of human anatomy and encouraged natrual treatments
what was trepanning
this was a procedure where a hole was drilled into someones skull to let out “bad spirits”
why did surgery progress during the medieval period
This was because the number of wars across Europe, such as the Crusades, gave surgeons many patients on whom to experiment with new techniques.
what was Cauterisation
cauterisation was a process used to stop bleeding. It involved heating a piece of iron in a fire and pressing it onto a wound. This would seal the blood vessels, but it also risked a severe burn and caused pain for the patient
what where aesthetics like during the medieval period
surgeons experimented with using things like opium and alcohol as aesthetics however these where hard to get correct doses for most surgeries took place without any aesthetics
what was the black death
in 1348, the a plague called the Black Death arrived in England. Up to half of Europe’s population was killed by the Black Death.
what where some things belived to cause the balck death
Miasma was believed to be a cause. This was the theory that bad air spread disease.
people where also very religious back then and belived it to be be a punishment from god
how did some people try to cure/prevent the black death
some people called flagellants would whip themselves as they belived this was showing god that they where punishing themselves for their sins
Miasma theory led people to carry herbs or flower petals, so they could avoid the smell of the streets.
what were the consequences of the black death
The Black Death had a devastating impact. Up to half of the population of Europe was killed. The focus of medicine was finding effective cures and treatments for the disease. However, when the plague broke out again in 1665, similar ideas were used to deal with it.
what helped medicine to develop during the renaissance
During this period, ancient ideas were revisited and challenged. This resulted in discoveries in many areas
what helped spread new medical ideas during the renaissance
In 1440, Johannes Gutenberg had invented the printing press. This meant that when new ideas were written down, they could quickly be copied many times and communicated to people across Europe.
who was Andreas Vesalius
Andreas Vesalius was born in 1514 in Brussels, Belgium. At university Vesalius was able to study human bodies closely using dissection. This gave him the opportunity to explore how the body worked and understand the roles of different organs
what did Vesalius write
Vesalius is best known for his book “the Fabric of the Human Body”, published in 1543. This was an extremely detailed and accurate guide for doctors on how the human body worked.
what did some of Vesalius’ discoveries show
Some of Vesalius’ discoveries proved that Galen had made some mistakes.
How was Vesalius significant in the short term
In the short term, Vesalius’ work was significant as he had proved that Galen had made mistakes. This encouraged other doctors to question other ideas and theories Galen had produced.
how was Vesalius significant in the long term
due to the accuracy of the anatomical knowledge and drawings contained in On the Fabric of the Human Body. This meant other advances in medicine could happen. For example, surgeons could later use Vesalius’ work to develop new operations
who was Paré
Paré was born in France in 1510. He was a surgeon to French kings and worked as a barber surgeon in the French army.
how did Paré effect surgery
If patients had severe wounds or had a limb amputated, blood vessels were sealed by cauterising with hot oil
Paré used ligatures to tie blood vessels and stop bleeding. this was effecting in stopping bleeding but didn’t reduce death rates as germs hadn’t been discovered so surgeons often had dirty hands leading to infection
how was Pare significant in the short term
Paré showed that new methods, such as his ointment, could be more successful than ideas that had been followed for centuries
how was Pare significant in the long term
in the longer term, ligatures would be useful. However, fully implementing them required the discovery of germ theory (by Louis Pasteur) and carbolic acid (by Joseph Lister). This allowed ligatures to be properly
sterilise
who was William Harvey
William Harvey was an English doctor who was born in 1578.
what where previous ideas about blood before William Harvey
Galen had said that blood was burned up by the body, like fuel on a fire. He said new blood was made in the liver. These ideas were widely believed by doctors in the Middle Ages.
how did William Harvey prove ideas about circulation
Harvey dissected frogs, which have a slow pulse rate, and showed that blood was pumped around the body by the heart. He also discovered the role of valves in blood vessels, which make sure blood only flows in one direction.
what book did William Harvey publish
Harvey published a book in 1628 called An Anatomical Account of the Motion of the Heart and Blood
Why was Harvey significant in the short term?
Harvey’s work was important as it was another example (after Vesalius) of Galen’s work being proved to be incorrect. This encouraged other doctors to continue to question and challenge ancient ideas.
how was Harvey significant in the long term?
In the longer term, Harvey’s work was significant in the development of successful blood transfusions. When blood groups where discovered in 1901
what was the great plague
The plague returned to England in 1665. This outbreak became known as the Great Plague. It again had a devastating impact, killing 100,000 people in London.
what actions did the government take in response to the great plague
As plague spread throughout Europe, the government introduced a quarantine for all ships coming into London.
If a household contained someone infected with the plague, the people were locked inside and a red cross was painted on their door.
There was a belief that stray cats and dogs were spreading plague, so the mayor of London ordered that they should all be killed. This may have actually made the outbreak worse, as the cats would have caught some of the rats that were responsible for spreading the disease.
why where attempts to stop the spread of the great plague mostly unsuccessful
Germs still had not been discovered, and this was the biggest problem in taking effective action to deal with the plague. Miasma, the four humours and God were still believed to be the main possible causes
what cures where used for the great plague
The cures in 1665-1666 were similar to those used in the 1348-1349 Black Death outbreak. Bloodletting
and purging were widely used, showing that the four humours were still believed to cause disease.
what was the impact of the great plague
The Black Death of 1348-1349 killed more people than the Great Plague of 1665-1666.
This was in part due to a more organised government response in 1665-1666.
how was there a growth in hospitals
There was an increasing number of hospitals in the 17th and 18th centuries. The monasteries had been closed down by Henry VIII in the 1530s, so towns needed to open hospitals to take their place.
however hospitals still based their treatment’s off the four humors
what where quack doctors
As most people could not afford a physician, they had to look elsewhere for medical advice and treatments. Quack doctors were unqualified and often claimed to be selling miracle cures. They sold potions that supposedly contained all kinds of mysterious ingredients, such as crushed unicorn horn.
who was John Hunter
John Hunter was born in Scotland in 1728.
He moved to London and trained as a surgeon
how was john hunter significant
As a prominent doctor and leading member of the Royal Society, Hunter was responsible for the training of other doctors. These included Edward Jenner, who went on to discover the
smallpox vaccine. Hunter was keen to encourage other surgeons to follow careful scientific methods when developing their practice. He argued that this would help surgeons to improve their methods and lead to better outcomes for patients.
what was smallpox
Smallpox was a disease that caused severe rashes all over the body. It had a
mortality rate of around 30 per cent
what was inoculation
This involved giving someone a small amount of pus from a smallpox victim
what did Edward Jenner discover
Edward Jenner was an English doctor. He heard milkmaids claim that they would not catch smallpox as they had already been infected with a far less serious disease, cowpox.
In 1796, Jenner took cowpox pus from a milkmaid, and smeared it into a small cut in the arm of eight-year-old. he became mildly ill with cowpox. Next, Jenner gave Phipps pus from a smallpox victim and James did not become ill.
why was there opposition to Edward Jenner’s vaccine
Some members of the Church believed that disease was sent by God, so the vaccine interfered with God’s will
Jenner did not know about germs. Because of this, he could not fully explain how his vaccine worked.
why was Jenner significant
Jenner’s vaccine meant people could be protected against a deadly disease. In 1853, a law was introduced making it compulsory for all newborn babies to be vaccinated against smallpox. In 1967, the
World Health Organisation
launched a plan to try to eradicate smallpox. In 1980, they announced that their goal had been achieved.
what was surgery like in the 19th century
At the start of the 19th century, there were three key problems with surgery:
pain
infection
blood loss
These issues meant surgery had to be quick. There were also high
mortality rates,
as many patients died of infection even if they survived the operation.
who discovered chloroform could be used as an anesthetic
James Simpson was a Scottish doctor. In 1847, he and some friends experimented with chloroform. He discovered that it was an effective general anaesthetic.
why was there opposition to anesthetics
When not used carefully, anaesthetics could be dangerous. Hannah Greener was a 15-year-old girl who died during a procedure to remove an ingrown toenail because she was given too much chloroform.
how was the opposition to anesthetics solved
In 1853, when giving birth to her eighth child, Queen Victoria used chloroform. Her doctor was John Snow and she later spoke of that ‘blessed chloroform’ in easing the pain of childbirth. This gave the public reassurance that chloroform was safe and effective.
what was the idea of spontaneous generation
Doctors were aware that germs existed in the late 17th century. However, there was not a belief that germs caused disease. People believed in spontaneous generation. This led to the belief that germs, which appeared at the site of disease or illness, were a consequence of the illness rather than the cause of the illness.
What did Louis Pasteur do?
Louis Pasteur was a French chemist. In the 1850s a winemaker to investigate why their wine was going off. Pasteur used a
microscope to see that there were
bacteria in the wine. He believed this was what was making it go off. He successfully heated the wine to kill the bacteria.
In 1861 Pasteur published his work on germ theory. This was a hugely significant moment. It allowed further advances to take place in vaccines, surgery and antibiotics.
What did Robert Koch do?
Robert Koch was a German doctor. He used industrial dyes to stain bacteria. This made them easier to identify when viewed under a microscope. In 1876, he identified the germ that causes anthrax. This was the first time the bacteria responsible for a specific disease had been identified. Identifying specific bacteria was crucial in being able to develop effective treatments and vaccines.
who was joseph lister
Joseph Lister was a Scottish surgeon. He read about Pasteur’s work on germ theory. He experimented using a chemical, carbolic acid, to soak bandages before applying them to a wound. He found that it prevented infection and helped wounds to heal.
Carbolic acid was hugely effective. Lister reported that mortality rates in his surgery fell from 40 per cent before its use to 15 per cent afterwards he started using it.
what was the 1848 Public Health Act
In 1848, the government passed a Public Health Act. this meant:
Local authorities could set up a local board of health to oversee public health. If an area had a mortality rate higher than 23 per 1,000 people, the local authority had to set up a board.
The local board of health could then raise taxes to pay for clean water supplies and new sewerage system
who was john snow
John Snow was a physician who was working in London during the cholera outbreak in 1854. He did not believe miasma theory was responsible for the outbreak of cholera
what was john snows investgation
Focused on cholera cases in Soho, London.
Snow plotted all the places where people had died from cholera.
From the map, he was able to work out that they had all drunk water from the same pump on Broad Street.
It is believed that the drinking water was contaminated by sewage leaking into the water supply
Snow knew that none of the workers at a local brewery had been taken ill with cholera.
The people who worked at the brewery had been drinking beer, rather than water from the pump.
Snow persuaded the local council to remove the handle from the pump so it could not be used.
Cases of cholera in the area stopped as people were forced to go to other pumps for their water.
what was the significance of snows work
Snow’s investigation proved that cholera was a waterborne disease. This was an important step forward in disproving the miasma theory. However, Snow could not explain that there were germs in the water that were causing the illness. Therefore, many people continued to believe that cholera was caused by miasma. It was not until Louis Pasteur’s germ theory that there was evidence to further support Snow’s work.
