Herbert Weir Smyth, A Greek Grammar for Colleges

Question 1

Which Greek letters were actually invented by the Greeks?

Answer 1

Υ~Ω

Question 2

Open and close vowels

Answer 2

Vowels are said to be open or close according as the mouth is more open or less open in pronouncing them, the tongue and lips assuming different positions in the case of each.

Question 3

The seven vowels

Answer 3

α, ε, η, ι, ο, υ, ω.

Question 4

The original Greek word for diphthong and its literal meaning

Answer 4

A diphthong (δίφθογγος having two sounds)

Question 5

The second vowel in a diphthong is always either

Answer 5

ι or υ.

Question 6

With capital letters, what happens to the iota subscript?

Answer 6

It becomes a capital iota, as ΤΗΙ ΩΙΔΗΙ ῀ τῇ ᾠδῇ or Ὠιδῇ to the song.

Question 7

List the diphthongs

Answer 7

αι, ει, οι, ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ; αυ, ευ, ου, ηυ, and υι.

Question 8

Examples of ωυ and ηυ as diphthongs

Answer 8

A diphthong ωυ occurs in New Ionic (ὡυτός the same from ὁ αὐτός 68 D., ἐμωυτοῦ of myself = ἐμαυτοῦ 329 D., θωῦμα ῀ θαῦμα wonder). Ionic has ηυ for Attic αυ in some words (Hom. νηῦς ship).

Question 9

Genuine vs spurious/ apparent diphthongs

Answer 9

Spurious diphthongs, which can be either ει, or ου, are those which are only the result of contraction.Genuine ει, ου are a combination of ε ¨ ι, ο ¨ υ, as in λείπω I leave (cp. λέλοιπα I have left, 35 a), γένει to a race (49), ἀκόλουθος follower (cp. κέλευθος way). Spurious ει, ου arise from contraction (50) or compensatory lengthening (37). Thus, ἐφίλει he loved, from ἐφίλεε, θείς placing from θεντ-ς; ἐφίλουν they loved from ἐφίλεον, πλοῦς voyage from πλόος, δούς giving from δοντ-ς.

Question 10

Which two letters might a diaeresis appear over?

Answer 10

A double dot, the mark of diaeresis (διαίρεσις separation), may be written over ι or υ when these do not form a diphthong with the preceding vowel: προΐστημι I set before, νηΐ to a ship.

Question 11

In what circumstances were vowels sometimes written apart by diaeresis?

Answer 11

In poetry and certain dialects. πάις (or πάϊς) boy or girl, Πηλεΐδης son of Peleus, ἐύ (or ἐΰ) well, Ἀίδης (or Ἀΐδης) Hades, γένεϊ to a race.

Question 12

The other names for the rough and smooth breathings respectively

Answer 12

spiritus asper and spiritus lenis. Thus, ὅρος hóros boundary, ὄρος óros mountain.

Question 13

Which dialect lost the rough breathing at an early date?

Answer 13

The Ionic of Asia Minor lost the rough breathing at an early date. So also before ρ (13). Its occurrence in compounds (124 D.) is a relic of the period when it was still sounded in the simple word. Hom. sometimes has the smooth where Attic has the rough breathing in forms that are not Attic: Ἀΐδης (Ἅ_ιδης), the god Hades, ἆλτο sprang (ἅλλομαι), ἄμυδις together (cp. ἅμα), ἠέλιος sun (ἥλιος), ἠώς dawn (ἕως), ἴ_ρηξ hawk (ἱέρα_ξ), οὖρος boundary (ὅρος). But also in ἄμαξα wagon (Attic ἅμαξα). In Laconian medial ς became ( (h): ἐνί_κα_ἑ ῀ ἐνί_κησε he conquered.

Question 14

Initial υ always has the rough breathing except in which dialect?

Answer 14

In Aeolic, υ, like all the other vowels (and the diphthongs), always has the smooth breathing. The epic forms ὔμμες you, ὔμμι, ὔμμε (325 D.) are Aeolic.

Question 15

The classical Greek alphabet originated where?

Answer 15

originated in Ionia, and was adopted at Athens in 403 B.C. The letters from A to T are derived from Phoenician and have Semitic names. The signs Υ to Ω were invented by the Greeks. From the Greek alphabet are derived the alphabets of most European countries. The ancients used only the large letters, called majuscules (capitals as Ε, uncials as [Eunc ]); the small letters (minuscules), which were used as a literary hand in the ninth century, are cursive forms of the uncials.

Question 16

Name some differences between the Attic alphabet before and after 403 B.C.

Answer 16

Before 403 B.C. in the official Attic alphabet E stood for ε, η, spurious ει (6), O for ο, ω, spurious ου (6), H for the rough breathing, ΧΣ for Ξ, ΦΣ for Ψ. Λ was written for γ, and [lins ] for λ. 3. In the older period there were two other letters: (1) Ϝ: ϝαῦ, uau, called digamma (i.e. double-gamma) from its shape. It stood after ε and was pronounced like ω. ϝ was written in Boeotian as late as 200 B.C. (2) ϟ: κόππα, koppa, which stood after π. Another ς, called san, is found in the sign [sampi ], called sampi, i.e. san + pi. On these signs as numerals, see 348.

Question 17

Later copyists would have omitted digammas from the Homeric texts, but list some examples of Homeric words containing ϝ

Answer 17

Vau was in use as a genuine sound at the time the Homeric poems were composed, though it is found in no Mss. of Homer. Many apparent irregularities of epic verse (such as hiatus, 47 D.) can be explained only by supposing that ϝ was actually sounded. Examples of words containing ϝ are: ἄστυ town, ἄναξ lord, ἁνδάνω please, εἴκω give way (cp. weak), εἴκοσι twenty (cp. viginti), ἕκαστος each, ἑκών willing, ἔλπομαι hope (cp. voluptas), ἔοικα am like, ἕο, οἷ, ἕ him, ἕξ six, ἔπος word, εἶπον said, ἔργον, ἔρδω work, ἕννυ_μι clothe, fr. ϝεσ-νυ_μι (cp. vestis), ἐρέω will say (cp. verbum), ἕσπερος evening (cp. vesper), ἴον violet (cp. viola), ἔτος year (cp. vetus), ἡδύς sweet (cp. suavis), ἰδεῖν (οἶδα) know (cp. videre, wit), ἴ_ς strength (cp. vis), ἰ_τέα willow (cp. vitis, withy), οἶκος house (cp. vicus), οἶνος wine (cp. vinum), ὅς his (123), ὄχος carriage (cp. veho, wain). Vau was lost first before ο-sounds (ὁράω see, cp. be-ware). ϝ occurred also in the middle of words: κλέϝος glory, αἰϝεί always, ὄϝις sheep (cp. ovis), κληϝίς key (Dor. κλα_ΐς, cp. clavis), ξένϝος stranger, Διϝί to Zeus, καλϝός beautiful. Cp. 20, 31, 37 D., 122, 123.

Question 18

The rules on vowel length

Answer 18

ε and ο are always short, and take about half the time to pronounce as η and ω, which are always long; α, ι, υ are short in some syllables, long in others. In this Grammar, when α, ι, υ are not marked as long (α_, ι_, υ_) they are understood to be short. All vowels with the circumflex (149) are long. On length by position, see 144.

Question 19

A diphthong _ occurs in New Ionic

Answer 19

A diphthong ωυ occurs in New Ionic (ὡυτός the same from ὁ αὐτός 68 D., ἐμωυτοῦ of myself = ἐμαυτοῦ 329 D., θωῦμα ῀ θαῦμα wonder).

Question 20

Ionic has _ for Attic αυ in some words

Answer 20

Ionic has ηυ for Attic αυ in some words (Hom. νηῦς ship).

Question 21

Where do diphthongs take the breathing mark?

Answer 21

Diphthongs take the breathing, as the accent (152), over the second vowel: αἱρέω hairéo I seize, αἴρω aíro I lift. But ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ take both the breathing and the accent on the first vowel, even when ι is written in the line (5): ᾁδω ῀ Ἄιδω I sing, ᾄδης ῀ Ἅ_ιδης Hades, but Αἰνεία_ς Aeneas. The writing ἀίδηλος (Ἀίδηλος) destroying shows that αι does not here form a diphthong; and hence is sometimes written αϊ (8).

Question 22

The rough breathing is taken from words that form the second half of compound words but were those invisible rough breathings ever pronounced?

Answer 22

In compound words (as in προορᾶν to foresee, from πρό ¨ ὁρᾶν) the rough breathing is not written, though it must often have been pronounced: cp. ἐξέδρα_ a hall with seats, Lat. exhedra, exedra, πολυίστωρ very learned, Lat. polyhistor. On Attic inscriptions in the old alphabet (2 a) we find ΕΥΗΟΡΚΟΝ εὐὅρκον faithful to one’s oath.

Question 23

What percentage of initial ρs have the rough breathing?

Answer 23

Every initial ρ has the rough breathing: ῥήτωρ orator (Lat. rhetor). Medial ρρ is written ῤῥ in some texts: Πύῤῥος Pyrrhus.

Question 24

How many consonants are there?

Answer 24

Seventeen

Question 25

The seventeen consonants are commonly divided into what 5 groups?

Answer 25

stops (or mutes), spirants, liquids, nasals, and double consonants

Question 26

Voiced vs. Voiceless consonants

Answer 26

Voiced (sonant, i.e. sounding) consonants are produced when the vocal chords vibrate. The sounds are represented by the letters β, δ, γ (stops), λ, ρ (liquids), μ, ν, γ-nasal (19 a) (nasals), and ζ. (All the vowels are voiced.) ρ with the rough breathing is voiceless.

b. Voiceless (surd, i.e. hushed) consonants require no exertion of the vocal chords. These are π, τ, κ, φ, θ, χ (stops), ς (spirant or sibilant), and ψ and ξ.

Question 27

Why are “stops” called “stops”?

Answer 27

Stops (or mutes). Stopped consonants are so called because in sounding them the breath passage is for a moment completely closed.

Question 28

Explain the rationale behind the three classes and the three orders of stops.

Answer 28

The stops are divided into three classes (according to the part of the mouth chiefly active in sounding them) and into three orders (according to the degree of force in the expiratory effort).

Question 29

List the three classes and the three orders of stops.

Answer 29

Classes
Labial (lip sounds)	π	β	φ
Dental (teeth sounds)	τ	δ	θ
Palatal (palate sounds)	κ	γ	χ
Orders
Smooth	π	τ	κ
Middle	β	δ	γ
Rough	φ	θ	χ

Question 30

The alternate names for both dentals and rough stops

Answer 30

The dentals are sometimes called linguals. The rough stops are also called aspirates (lit. breathed sounds) because they were sounded with a strong emission of breath (26). The smooth stops are thus distinguished from the rough stops by the absence of breathing. ( (h) is also an aspirate. The middle stops owe their name to their position in the above grouping, which is that of the Greek grammarians.

Question 31

List the spirants and give their other name.

Answer 31

There is one spirant: ς (also called a sibilant). A spirant is heard when the breath passage of the oral cavity is so narrowed that a rubbing noise is produced by an expiration.

Question 32

List the liquids

Answer 32

There are two liquids: λ and ρ. Initial ρ always has the rough breathing (13).

Question 33

List the nasals

Answer 33

There are three nasals: μ (labial), ν (dental), and γ-nasal (palatal). b. The name liquids is often used to include both liquids and nasals.

Question 34

What is a gamma nasal?

Answer 34

Gamma before κ, γ, χ, ξ is called γ-nasal. It had the sound of n in think, and was represented by n in Latin. Thus, ἄγκυ_ρα (Lat. ancora) anchor, ἄγγελος (Lat. angelus) messenger, σφίγξ sphinx.

Question 35

List the semivowels

Answer 35

ι, υ, the liquids, nasals, and the spirant ς are often called semivowels.

Question 36

When are ι and υ said to be unsyllabic?

Answer 36

When ι and υ correspond to y and w (cp. minion, persuade) they are said to be unsyllabic; and, with a following vowel, make one syllable out of two

Question 37

The form of many words is due to the fact that the liquids, nasals, and ς may fulfil the office of a vowel to form _

Answer 37

The form of many words is due to the fact that the liquids, nasals, and ς may fulfil the office of a vowel to form syllables (cp. bridle, even, pst). This is expressed by λ̣ο̣, μ̣ο̣, ν̣ο̣, ρ̣ο̣, σ̣ο̣, to be read ‘syllabic λ,’ etc., or ‘sonant λ’ (see 35 b, c).

Question 38

List the double consonants

Answer 38

These are ζ, ξ, and ψ. ζ is a combination of σδ (or δς) or δι (26). ξ is written for κς, γτ, χτ; ψ for πς, βς, φς.

Question 39

Summarise the transition of Greek from a phonetic to an unphonetic language

Answer 39

The pronunciation of Ancient Greek varied much according to time and place, and differed in many important respects from that of the modern language. While in general Greek of the classical period was a phonetic language, i.e. its letters represented the sounds, and no heard sound was unexpressed in writing (but see 108), in course of time many words were retained in their old form though their pronunciation had changed. The tendency of the language was thus to become more and more unphonetic. Our current pronunciation of Ancient Greek is only in part even approximately correct for the period from the death of Pericles (429 B.C.) to that of Demosthenes (322); and in the case of several sounds, e.g. ζ, φ, χ, θ, it is certainly erroneous for that period.

Question 40

Short α, ι, and υ vs. their corresponding long vowels.

Answer 40

Short α, ι, υ differed in sound from the corresponding long voweis only in being less prolonged; ε and ο probably differed from η and ω also in being less open, a difference that is impossible to parallel in English as our short vowels are more open than the long vowels.

Question 41

When short vowels form the second part of a compound

Answer 41

The initial short vowel of a word forming the second part of a compound is often lengthened: στρατηγός general (στρατός army + ἄγειν to lead 887 d).

Question 42

Define compensatory lengthening and give examples

Answer 42

Compensatory lengthening is the lengthening of a short vowel to make up for the omission of a consonant.

The short vowels	α	ε	ι	ο	υ
are lengthened to	α_	ει	ι_	ου	υ_
Thus the forms	τάν-ς	ἐ-μεν-σα	ἐκλιν-σα	τόνς	δεικνυντ-ς
become	τά_ς	ἔμεινα	ἔκλι_να	τούς	δεικνύ_ς
the	I remained	I leaned	the	showing

Question 43

The λ, ρ, or ν aorist stem rule

Answer 43

α becomes η in the σ-aorist of verbs whose stems end in λ, ρ, or ν, when not preceded by ι or ρ. Thus, ἐφαν-σα becomes ἔ-φηνα I showed, but ἐπεραν-σα becomes ἐπέρα_να I finished. So σελήϝη moon for σελασ-νη (σέλας gleam). c. The diphthongs ει and ου due to this lengthening are spurious (6).

Question 44

Examples of when a long vowel may be shortened before another long vowel

Answer 44

A long vowel may be shortened before another long vowel: βασιλέων from βασιλήων of kings, νεῶν from νηῶν of ships, τεθνεώς from τεθνηώς dead.

Question 45

Was a long vowel before ι, υ, a nasal, or a liquid + a following consonant regularly shortened or lengthened?

Answer 45

A long vowel before ι, υ, a nasal, or a liquid + a following consonant was regularly shortened: να^ῦς from original να_υς ship, ἐμίγεν from ἐ-μιγη-ντ were mixed. The long vowel was often introduced again, as Ion. νηῦς ship.

Question 46

When α, ε, ο are additionally prefixed before λ, μ, ρ, ϝ they are called _

Answer 46

Prothetic vowels. Thus, ἀ-λείφω anoint with oil, λίπος fat; ἐ-ρυθρός red (cp. Lat. ruber), ἐ-είκοσι from ἐ-（ϝ）είκοσι; ὀ-μόργνυ_μι wipe; ἐ-χθές and χθές yesterday, ἴ-κτις weasel (κτιδέη weasel-skin helmet) are doubtful cases.

Question 47

When a medial vowel is developed from λ or ν between two consonants, the process is called what?

Answer 47

Development. Thus αλ, λα; αρ, ρα; αν (35 b). Also (rarely) in forms like Ion. βάραγχος = Att. βράγχος hoarseness.

Question 48

When the ι and υ of diphthongs disappear before a following vowel the process is called what?

Answer 48

Disappearance. Thus, ὑός from υἱός son, βο-ός genitive of βοῦ-ς ox, cow. So in Hdt. κέεται for κείεται lies, βαθέα for βαθεῖα deep.

Question 49

The disappearance of ε before a vowel is often called _

Answer 49

hyphaeresis (ὑφαίρεσις omission). Thus Ionic νοσσός chick for νεοσσός, ὁρτή for ἑορτή festival; ἀδεῶς fearlessly for ἀδεέως. Here ε was sounded nearly like y and was not written.

Question 50

The disappearance of a short vowel between consonants is called _

Answer 50

syncope (συγκοπή cutting up). Thus πί_πτω fall for πι-πετ-ω, πατρός father for πατέρος. Syncopated forms show the weak grade of vowel gradation (35, 36).

Question 51

Assimilation

Answer 51

A vowel may be assimilated to the vowel standing in the following syllable: βιβλίον book from βυβλίον (βύβλος papyrus).

Question 52

The various ways in which Attic dealt with the immediate succession of two vowel sounds in adjoining syllables.

Answer 52

Attic more than any other dialect disliked the immediate succession of two vowel sounds in adjoining syllables. To avoid such succession, which often arose in the formation and inflection of words, various means were employed: contraction (48 ff.), when the vowels collided in the middle of a word; or, when the succession occurred between two words (hiatus), by crasis (62 ff.), elision (70 ff.), aphaeresis (76), or by affixing a movable consonant at the end of the former word (134).

Question 53

Hiatus is usually avoided by elision in what category of writing?

Answer 53

Prose. Hiatus is usually avoided in prose writers by elision (70 ff.); but in cases where elision is not possible, hiatus is allowed to remain by different writers in different degrees, commonly after short words, such as ὦ, εἰ, ἤ, καί, μή, and the forms of the article.

Question 54

Examples of when hiatus is allowed

Answer 54

1. In epic poetry:
   a. After ι and υ: ἄξονι ἀμφίς, σύ ἐσσι.

b. After a long final syllable having the rhythmic accent: μοι ἐθέλουσα ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]˘).
c. When a long final syllable is shortened before an initial vowel (weak , or improper, hiatus): ἀκτῇ ἐφ᾽ ὑψηλῇ ([macrdot]˘˘[macrdot]¯[macrdot]).
d. When the concurrent vowels are separated by the caesura; often after the fourth foot: ἀλλ᾽ ἄγ᾽ ἐμῶν ὀχέων ἐπιβήσεο, ι ὄφρα ἴδηαι; very often between the short syllables of the third foot (the feminine caesura): as, ἀλλ᾽ ἀκέουσα κάθησο, ι ἐμῷ δ᾽ ἐπιπείθεο μύ_θῳ; rarely after the first foot: αὐτὰρ ὁ ἔγνω A 333.
e. Where ϝ has been lost.
2. In Attic poetry hiatus is allowable, as in 1 c, and after τί what? εὖ well, interjections, περί concerning, and in οὐδὲ (μηδὲ) εἷς (for οὐδείς, μηδείς no one).

Question 55

Delineate the role of contraction

Answer 55

Contraction unites in a single long vowel or diphthong two vowels or a vowel and a diphthong standing next each other in successive syllables in the same word.

Question 56

Occasion for contraction is made especially by the concurrence of vowel sounds which were once separated by _

Answer 56

ς

Question 57

The chief rules governing contraction:

Answer 57

(I) Two vowels which can form a diphthong (5) unite to form that diphthong: γένεϊ ῀ γένει, αἰδόϊ ῀ αἰδοῖ, κλήϊθρον ῀ κλῇθρον.
(II) Like Vowels.—Like vowels, whether short or long, unite in the common long; εε, οο become ει, ου (6): γέραα ῀ γέρα_, φιλέητε ῀ φιλῆτε; ἐφίλεε ῀ ἐφίλει, δηλόομεν ῀ δηλοῦμεν.
a. ι is rarely contracted with ι (ὀφι ¨ ιδιον ῀ ὀφί_διον small snake) or υ with υ (ὕ_ς son in inscriptions, from ὑ（ι）ύς ῀ υἱός, 43).
(III) Unlike vowels are assimilated, either the second to the first (progressive assimilation) or the first to the second (regressive assimilation).
a. An o sound always prevails over an a or e sound: ο or ω before or after α, and before η, forms ω. οε and εο form ου (a spurious diphthong, 6). Thus, τι_μάομεν ῀ τι_μῶμεν, αἰδόα ῀ αἰδῶ, ἥρωα ῀ ἥρω, τι_μάω ῀ τι_μῶ, δηλόητε ῀ δηλῶτε; but φιλέομεν ῀ φιλοῦμεν, δηλόετον ῀ δηλοῦτον.
b. When α and ε or η come together the vowel sound that precedes prevails, and we have α_ or η: ὅραε ῀ ὅρα_, τι_μάητε ῀ τί_μᾶτε, ὄρεα ῀ ὄρη.
c. υ rarely contracts: υ ¨ ι ῀ υ_ in ἰχθύ_διον from ἰχθυίδιον small fish; υ ¨ ε strictly never becomes υ_ (273).
(IV) Vowels and Diphthongs.—A vowel disappears before a diphthong beginning with the same sound: μνάαι ῀ μναῖ, φιλέει ῀ φιλεῖ, δηλόοι ῀ δηλοῖ.
A vowel before a diphthong not beginning with the same sound generally contracts with the first vowel of the diphthong; the last vowel, if ι, is subscript (5): τι_μάει ῀ τι_μᾷ, τι_μάοιμεν ῀ τι_μῷμεν, λείπεαι ῀ λείπῃ, μεμνηοίμην ῀ μεμνῴμην.
a. But ε ¨ οι becomes οι: φιλέοι ῀ φιλοῖ; ο ¨ ει, ο ¨ ῃ become οι: δηλόει ῀ δηλοῖ, δηλόῃ ῀ δηλοῖ.
Spurious ει and ου are treated like ε and ο: τι_μάειν ῀ τι_μᾶν, δηλόειν ῀ δηλοῦν, τι_μάουσι ῀ τι_μῶσι (but τι_μάει ῀ τι_μᾷ and δηλόει ῀ δηλοι_, since ει is here genuine; 6).
(V) Three Vowels.—When three vowels come together, the last two unite first, and the resulting diphthong may be contracted with the first vowel: thus, τι_μᾷ is from τι_μα-ῃ out of τι_μα-ε（ς）αι; but Περικλέους from Περικλέεος.
In Hom. δεῖος of fear from δέε（ς）-ος the first two vowels unite.

Question 58

Progressive vs. regressive assimilation

Answer 58

Unlike vowels are assimilated, either the second to the first (progressive assimilation) or the first to the second (regressive assimilation).

Question 59

Contractual irregularities grounded in differences of declension

Answer 59

A short vowel preceding α or any long vowel or diphthong, in contracts of the first and second declensions, is apparently absorbed (235, 290): χρύ_σεα ῀ χρυ_σᾶ (not χρυ_σῆ), ἁπλόα ῀ ἁπλᾶ (not ἁπλῶ), by analogy to the α which marks the neuter plural, χρυ_σέαις ῀ χρυ_σαῖς. (So ἡμέας ῀ ἡμᾶς to show the -ας of the accus. pl.) Only in the singular of the first declension does εα_ become η (or α_ after a vowel or ρ): χρυ_σέα_ς ῀ χρυ_σῆς, ἀργυρέᾳ ῀ ἀργυρᾷ. In the third declension εεα becomes εα_ (265); ιεα or υεα becomes ια_ (υα_) or ιη (υη). See 292 d.