Healthy bodies1 Flashcards
Recognise healthy body systems
Anatomy:
The study of body structures and the relationships between these structures.
Physiology:
The study of the functions of the body, that is, how the body parts work.
The four elements used to create medical terms, and what they (usually) indicate:
Root words:
contain the basic meaning of the term. They usually (but not always) indicate the involved body part.
(eg Appendicitis. word root “appendic” means appendix)
Prefixes:
always come at the beginning of a word. They usually (but not always) indicate location, time, number or status.
(eg Semi conscious. The prefix “semi” means half)
Suffixes:
always come at the end of a word. They usually (but not always) indicate the procedure, condition, disorder or disease.
(eg Appendicitis. The suffix “itis” means inflammation)
Combining forms:
word roots usually have a vowel at the end, so that a suffix can be added.
(eg Erythrocyte)
Name the word elements, and the individual and cumulative meanings
Cardi-ology: Hepat-itis: Pere-oste-um: Melan-o-cyte: Colon-o-scopy:
Prefix “heart” (root word “cardio”). Suffix “study of”. Therefore, study of the heart.
Prefix “liver” (root word “hepato). Suffix “inflammation”
Therefore, inflammation of the liver.
Prefix “around”. Root word “bone”. Suffix “tissue or structure”
Therefore, structure (sheath) wrapping around the bone.
Prefix “dark/black”. Combining form vowel “o”. Suffix “cell”.
Therefore, black (cancerous) (skin) cell.
Prefix “large intestine”. Combining form vowel “o”. Suffix “visual examination”
Therefore, visual (camera) examination of the large intestine.
myo/sarco: neuro: epi: angio: phlebo/veno:
muscle nerves on top blood vessels veins
tympan: neph: opthalm/oculo: oto: thromb:
eardrum kidney eye ear blood clot
hepato: ileo: thorac: pneumo/pleuro: megalo/megaly:
liver small intestine chest lung large/enlarged
tachy:
brady:
leuk:
eryth:
fast/rapid
slow/reduced
white
red
endo/intra: extra: trans: inter: peri:
within outside across between around
echo: gram: otomy: ostomy: dys:
ultrasonic waves used picture make a cut in create an opening not working properly (dysfunctional)
mal: -emia: osis: pathy: -algia:
bad blood condition condition/disease disease (pathology = study of diseases) pain
Three major sectional surfaces:
Other directional terms:
3 pairs
Frontal plane (vertical): anterior (front) and posterior (back) Median plane(vertical): left and right Transverse plane (horizontal): superior (above/upper) and inferior (below/lower)
Distal (farther from trunk of the body; the ankle is distal to the knee) and
Proximal (closer to the trunk; the knee is proximal to the ankle)
Lateral (away from midline of the body; the ribs are lateral to the lungs) and
Medial (closer to midline; the lungs are medial to the ribs)
Superficial (closer to the surface of the body) and
Deep (farther from surface)
The two major body cavities and their locations:
Dorsal cavity - posterior
and
Ventral cavity - anterior
Where is the thoracic cavity?
What are its boundaries and contents?
in the upper part of the trunk.
Its boundaries are formed by a bony framework (ribs?) and supporting muscles. The main organs and structures are the trachea, bronchi, lungs, heart, aorta, superior and inferior vena cava, the oesophagus, lymph nodes and the nerves.
What is the largest cavity and what does it contain?
Abdominal cavity (part of abdominopelvic cavity) Contains the stomach, small intestine, most of the large intestine, liver, gall bladder, bile ducts, pancreas, spleen and kidneys.
Most of the abdominal cavity is occupied by (the organs and glands of) the digestive system. There are other structures such as the adrenal glands and numerous blood vessels and lymph vessels, nerves and lymph nodes that are found in the abdominal cavity.
The pelvic cavity:
extends from the lower end of the abdominal cavity.
It contains the sigmoid colon, rectum, anus, some loops of the small intestine, urinary bladder, lower parts of the ureters and the urethra, and in the female, the organs of the reproductive system.
What cavity includes the cranial cavity (lined space inside skull) and spinal cavity (space inside spine)?
Dorsal cavity
(9) Abdominal regions:
Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region Right lateral (lumbar) region Umbilical region Left lateral (lumbar) region Right inguinal (iliac) region Hypogastric region (also known as suprapubic region) Left inguinal (iliac) region
Why is it critical to understand the normal structure and function of each body system?
To obtain and check information relating to a client’s physical health status;
and to identify variations from a normal physical health status.
Six levels of the body’s structural organisation:
Chemical (atoms and molecules, eg DNA);
Cellular (molecules grouped into cells, eg. blood cells);
Tissue (cells grouped into tissues, eg. muscle tissue);
Organ (structures composed of 2 or more types of
tissue, eg. lungs);
System (related organs with a common function, e.g.
respiratory system);
Organism (all systems are integrated and function as a
whole, eg. a human being)
The “ingredients” of blood:
55 % Plasma (91% water, 7% protein, 2% gasses and
salts)
<1% White blood cells and platelets (leukocytes and
thrombocytes)
45% Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
Blood is:
Its purpose is:
a connective tissue, although in a liquid form.
Its purpose is to transport oxygen and nutrients, aid in removal of metabolic wastes and helps distribute hormones
Blood serum:
Plasma after clotting factors are removed
Plasma:
A pale yellow fluid containing protein, gases and salts.
Proteins include albumin, antibodies and clotting factors. The proteins assist the body to regulate fluid volume, protect itself from pathogens and prevent excessive blood loss.
Blood serum:
Plasma minus the clotting factors
Red blood cells:
name, purpose and life cycle
Erythrocytes transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from body tissues
Haemoglobin is the substance that carries oxygen and gives blood its red colour.
Erythrocytes’ average life span is ~120 days (4 months)
Initially created by bone marrow as an immature form called “reticulocytes”. These mature into RBCs in about a day. The old RBCs are filtered and removed by the spleen.
White blood cells:
name, purpose and “workplace”
Leukocytes come in 5 different types. They all participate in the body’s defence and immune system.
Although carried by the blood stream, leukocytes act mainly in the tissues outside the blood vessels.
Platelets:
name and function
Thrombocytes are small colourless fragments split from cells in bone marrow.
They initiate contraction of damaged blood vessels to minimise blood loss;
form haemostatic plugs in injured vessels;
and accelerate blood coagulation.
The eleven body systems are:
Integumentary (skin, hair, nails, glands, nerves);
Muscular and
Skeletal (bones, tendons, ligaments,
skeletal muscles, nerves, cartilage)
Urinary (kidney, ureters, bladder, urethra)
Cardiovascular (heart, arteries, veins, capillaries)
Respiratory (airways, lungs, diaphragm and other
muscles of respiration)
Digestive (mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine,
pancreas, liver, large intestine)
Reproductive (F: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix,
vagina. M: prostate, penis, urethra, testicles,
scrotum)
Lymphatic (tonsils, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen)
Endocrine (in brain: pituary gland, pineal gland,
hypothalamus. elsewhere: thyroid/parathyroid
glands, adrenal glands, thymus, pancreatic
islets, gonads [testes or ovaries] )
Nervous (central nervous system [brain and
spinal cord], peripheral nervous system [nerve
fibres] eyes, ears, sensory organs of taste and of
smell, sensory receptors located in skin/joints/
muscles/other parts of the body)
Muscular and Skeletal Systems:
Musculoskeletal System
Bones; Tendons; Ligaments; Cartilage; Nerves; Skeletal muscles; Smooth muscles; Cardiac muscles.
Its functions are: Support and protection; Enable movement; Mineral storage; Fat and blood cell formation
Nervous System:
2 min-systems
Central nervous system:
Brain;
Spinal cord.
Peripheral nervous system:
Nerve fibres.
Eyes
Ears
Sensory organs of taste
Sensory organs of smell
Sensory receptors located in the skin, joints, muscles, and other parts of the body
Its functions are:
Help all parts of the body communicate with each
other to make things in your body ‘happen’;
React to changes both outside and inside the body;
Send and receive messages by both electrical and
chemical means.
Endocrine System includes:
Its functions are:
Major body functions controlled by hormones:
Pituary and pineal glands and hypothalamus (all in brain); Thyroid and parathyroid glands; Adrenal glands; Thymus; Pancreatic islets; Gonads (testes or ovaries).
Its functions are:
Co-ordinate and direct the activity of the body’s cells
Release and use hormones in the blood (then
transported to the appropriate parts of the body).
Along with the nervous system, the endocrine system co-ordinates and directs the activity of the body’s cells. Similar to how the nervous system is the ‘rapid response’ part of the body - using electrical impulses to generate messages - the endocrine system uses chemical messages (called hormones) which are released into the blood and transported to the appropriate parts of the body.
Major body functions controlled by hormones:
Reproduction
Growth and development
Mobilise body defences
Maintain water/electrolyte/nutrient balances in blood
Regulation of cellular metabolism and energy balance
Lymphatic System:
Tonsils;
Lymph nodes, ducts and vessels;
Thymus;
Spleen.
Its functions are:
Help in fighting disease;
Maintain homeostasis (self-regulation to maintain
stability) balance in the body.
Reproductive System:
Female: Ovaries; Fallopian tubes; Uterus; Cervix; Vagina Male: Prostate; Penis; Urethra; Testicles; Scrotum
Its functions are: Produce hormones; Produces egg or sperm cells; Transport and sustain these cells; Nurture the developing foetus.
The reproductive cycle in bothmales and females is regulated by several different hormones including testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone. The endocrine system controls the release of these hormones, which in turn fuels the onset of puberty and enables growth to maturity and human reproduction.
Digestive System:
Mouth; Oesophagus; Stomach; Small intestine; Pancreas; Liver; Large intestine; Rectum; Anus.
Its functions are:
Take in food ‘nd break it down into nutrient molecules;
Absorb them into the bloodstream;
Rid the body of the indigestible remains.
Respiratory System:
Airways;
Lungs;
Trachea;
Diaphragm and other muscles of respiration.
Its functions are:
Work with the Cardiovascular System to obtain oxygen
necessary to create energy for body functions;
Work with the Cardiovascular System to eliminate
carbon dioxide produced during cellular
metabolism.
Cardiovascular System:
Heart;
Arteries;
Veins;
Capillaries
Its function is to:
Move blood around the body, transporting oxygen,
nutrients and hormones to cells, and cellular waste
(CO2) to organs for removal from the body
Urinary System:
Kidneys;
Ureters;
Bladder;
Urethra.
Its function is to:
Remove nitrogenous wastes from the blood
While several organ systems are involved in the excretory process, the urinary system bears the primary responsibility for removing nitrogenous wastes from the blood. The kidneys filter blood and return most of the water and many solutes to the bloodstream. The remaining water and solutes constitute urine
Integumentary System:
Skin; Hair; Nails; Glands; Nerves.
Its functions are:
Protect deeper tissues from damage;
Help regulate body temperature;
Synthesize Vitamin D;
Allow the body to excrete uric acid and urea via
sweat.
Pathway of blood through the heart:
start coming in from the rest of the body
Superior/Inferior vena cava Right atrium Right AV valve Right ventricle Pulmonary valve Left/right pulmonary artery (lungs) Left/right pulmonary veins Left atrium Left AV valve Left ventricle Aaortic valve Aorta (to body)
Tiny airsacs in the lungs are called:
Alveoli
Angina:
Its cause:
Chest pain/discomfort caused by insufficient blood flow and oxygen to the heart.
Most common case of death in Australia:
Coronary Heart Disease.
It is also a major cause of disability, with many people reporting problems or needing assistance with daily activities.
Blood pressure disorders:
Hypertension (high blood pressure) is a risk factor for heart disease. If blood pressure remains high, it can lead to serious problems like heart attack, stroke, heart failure or kidney disease.
Hypotension (low blood pressure)
How is blood pressure recorded?
As two numbers, systolic pressure first then diastolic.
The systolic blood pressure (larger number)
indicates the pressure in the arteries as the
heart pumps out blood during each beat. The diastolic blood pressure (lower number)
indicates the pressure as the heart relaxes
before the next beat.
Is there a normal/ideal blood pressure range?
No, but the following figures should only be used as a guide:
Low blood pressure - below 90/60
Normal blood pressure - generally
between 90/60 and 120/80
High-normal blood pressure - between
120/80 and 140/90
High blood pressure - equal to or more
than 140/90
Very high blood pressure - equal to or
more than 180/110
High Cholesterol:
Cholesterol is used for many different things in the body, but causes health problems when there is too much of it in the blood.
Cholesterol is a fatty substance produced naturally by your body and found in your blood. You can also get cholesterol from some foods.
Varicose veins:
appearance, location aand treatment. also spider
Knobbly, twisted and darkish-blue in appearance.
Most commonly found on the legs.
Caused by faulty valves within veins that allow blood to
pool.
(Spider veins are smaller, visible veins and are closer to
the skin surface. They are mostly found on the legs or
face)
Treatments for varicose veins and spider veins include sclerotherapy and surgery.
Deep vein thrombosis:
what it is; symptoms; risk factors; treatment
Occurs when blood clots form in one of the deep veins – typically the thigh or calf.
Often symptomless, but may have leg pain, swelling or
skin discoloration in the affected area.
Can be life-threatening if the clot travels to the lungs
(called pulmonary embolism). This condition causes
shortness of breath and pain with deep breathing.
Risk factors for DVT:
Being bed ridden;
Prolonged sitting (such as on a long plane flight);
Trauma to the area;
Pregnancy and obesity
Medication is typically used to break up clots.
6 steps to maintain a healthy cardiovascular system:
Avoid smoking;
Eat a well-balanced diet;
Maintain a healthy BMI;
Undergo regular health checks (e.g. blood pressure
and cholesterol levels);
Engage in regular physical activity;
Minimise alcohol intake.The organs and components of the Respiratory System are:
10 points
Nose and nasal cavity; Sinuses, tonsils and adenoids; Pharynx; Larynx; Trachea; Bronchi; Bronchioles and smaller air passages; Alveoli; Lungs and pleura; Diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
The nose and nasal cavity are composed of:
Its functions are:
External nares (nostrils);
Internal nares (nasal cavity);
Ciliated mucous membranes (line nasal cavity);
Palate
Functions: An airway for respiration; Warms, moistens and filters inspired air; Resonating chamber for speech; Contains receptors for smell.
Sinuses, Tonsils and Adenoids:
Paranasal sinuses and nasolacrimal ducts drain into the nasal cavity;
Sinuses include:
frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary,
and hollow chambers for speech sounds
Eustachian tubes connect the nasopharynx to middle ear;
Tonsils and adenoids found in the pharynx and nasopharynx
The pharynx is:
Its three parts are:
A muscular tube, lined with mucous membrane.
It has three regions:
Nasopharynx;
Oropharynx;
Laryngopharynx;
The Larynx is:
The larynx is made of cartilage and it contains our vocal cords, together with connecting the pharynx to trachea below.
The laryngeal opening (glottis) is hooded by the epiglottis and prevents food/ liquid from entering trachea.
The larynx also helps to produce sound as air passes the vocal cords.
Trachea:
The trachea is the air passage from the larynx to the bronchus.
It is a smooth muscle tube lined with ciliated mucosa.
It has C-shaped cartilage to keep the trachea open and divides to form right and left bronchi.
Bronchi:
There are two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung):
right and left primary bronchi
result from subdivision of trachea
enters hilus of lung on each side
right side less angled – foreign bodies more likely to
enter right side
Lungs and the Pleura:
Right and left lung (occupy entire thoracic cavity except
where heart and great vessels lie in the mediastinum
[central part of thoracic cavity] )
Right lobe (divided into 3 lobes:- superior, middle and
inferior)
Left lobe (divided into 2 lobes:- superior and inferior)
The Pleura (closed sac of serous membrane – one for
each lung) which contains a small amount of serous
fluid.
The structures entering and leaving each lung at the hilus are:
bronchus
pulmonary artery
two pulmonary veins
bronchial artery
bronchial veins
How age affects the respiratory system.
Decrease in lung capacity, with fewer alveoli which
means less ability to take in oxygen.
The chest wall becomes rigid and due to the
consequences of age-related changes in the
cardiovascular system, there is a decrease in blood
flow to the lungs.
Bronchitis:
Inflammation of the bronchial tubes, the airways that carry air to your lungs. It causes a cough that often brings up mucus, as well as shortness of breath, wheezing, and chest tightness.
Asthma:
Common disease of the airways.
During an asthma attack, the airways narrow, reducing the flow of air in and out of the lungs. This may lead to wheezing and coughing.
Pollen, cigarette smoke, colds and flu can trigger an asthma attack.
About one in ten Australians have asthma. A range of programs and services are available to support people with asthma.
Lung cancer:
When abnormal cells in one or both lungs grow in an uncontrolled way. Most lung cancers are caused by cigarette smoking.
4 ways to maintain a healthy respiratory system:
Stop smoking:
The biggest factor.
Cigarette smoke contains tar and thousands of
chemicals which damage lungs and cause
inflammation. There are many different methods used
to assist with smoking cessation which include
nicotine replacement therapy, medication and
hypnotherapy.
Exercise:
When you begin exercising, an increased need for
oxygen to your muscles causes your brain to stimulate
your respiratory system to increase ventilation or
breathing.
Also beneficial are exercises that incorporate specific
breathing exercises such as yoga and Pilates.
Eat healthily:
Your body requires vitamins and other nutrients to
effectively build and maintain all tissues, including
those that make up your respiratory system.
Practice good hygiene:
Viral or bacterial infection, illnesses (eg influenza and
pneumonia) can cause short and longer term damage
to the respiratory system, seriously decrease your
lung capacity and ability to absorb oxygen.
Maintaining proper hygiene is the best way to
minimise chances of contracting microbial
illnesses.
One of the main ways you can do this is by regular
handwashing.
How many bones in (an adult) human skeleton?
206
Bones are:
Their 5 major functions:
How are they classified?
Living tissues that require oxygen, nutrients and the disposal of wastes in order to remain alive and functional.
Five major functions:
Support;
Protection;
Movement;
Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphorus) and fat;
Blood cell formation.
Bones are classified based on their shape:
Long bones, such as the humerus and femur;
Short bones, such as the bones of the wrist;
Flat bones, such as the bones in the skull;
Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae.
Requirements for healthy bones:
Calcium; Vitamin D; Vitamin A; Vitamin C; Phosphate; Iron; Manganese
How many muscles in the human body?
Over 600.
They make up about half of the body’s weight
Skeletal muscles:
Generally attached to bone.
Their function is to produce movement and maintain body posture.
They also produce considerable heat and therefore help maintain body temperature.
These muscles are also known as voluntary muscles - as we have conscious control over the use of these muscles - we choose to walk etc.
Smooth muscles:
Located in the walls of internal organs such as the digestive tract, blood vessels and ducts leading from glands. Their function is to move and control the flow of fluids through these structures
They control the actions of our stomach, bladder and blood vessels.
These muscles are also known as involuntary muscles as they are under the control of the autonomic nervous system and they move ‘automatically’ during body functioning.
They are also referred to as the visceral muscles.
Cardiac muscle:
Only in the heart.
This type of muscle is classified as involuntary - we do not have to ‘think’ about our heart beating.
It is the contraction and relaxation of this muscle that causes the heart to beat.
4 major functions of muscles:
Movement;
Posture- skeletal muscles allow us to maintain body posture despite the downward pull of gravity;
Stabilization of joints - as the skeletal muscles pulls on bones to cause movements they also stabilize the joints;
Generation of body heat through muscular activity .
Skeletal muscle accounts for at least 40% of body mass so is the muscle type most responsible for heat generation.
Agonist:
The muscle that contracts to generate the main force of an action. Also called the “prime mover”
Muscles that perform the opposing action are called antagonists.
These are “paired muscle actions”
Types of paired muscle actions:
Flexion and extension;
Elevation and depression;
Pronation and supination
What are joints?
An area where two or more bones are in contact with each other - almost every bone in the body joins or articulates with another bone.
Joints allow movement and are held together by ligaments.
7 types of joints:
Hinge joints (elbow); Ball and socket joints (shoulder); Condyloid joints - allow for circular motion, flexion and extension (wrist); Gliding joints (spinal vertebrae); Pivot joints - allow for rotation (Atlas and axis [at the top of the spine. rotates head] ) Saddle joints (base of thumb - allows it to be opposable); Sutures (non-moving joints of the skull. Serrated edges for strength)
Osteoporosis:
A loss of bone tissue leaves bones less dense and more likely to fracture. Can result in a loss of height, severe back pain, and change in posture.
Osteoporosis can impair a person’s ability to walk and can cause prolonged or permanent disability.
Arthritis:
2 types, of more than 100
Osteoarthritis:
A painful, degenerative joint disease
Often involves hips, knees, neck, lower back, or small
joints of the hands.
Usually develops in joints that are injured by repeated
overuse (from performing a particular task, playing a
sport, or from carrying excess body weight). Eventually this thins or wears away the cartilage. Then the bones rub together, causing a grating sensation. Joint flexibility is reduced, bony spurs develop, and the joint swells.
Usually, the first symptom is pain that worsens with
exercise or immobility.
Treatment usually includes:
analgesics, topical creams, or NSAIDs;
appropriate exercises/physical therapy;
joint splinting;
joint replacement surgery for seriously damaged larger joints, such as the knee or hip.
Rheumatoid arthritis:
Autoimmune inflammatory disease that usually involves various joints in the fingers, thumbs, wrists, elbows, shoulders, knees, feet, and ankles. An autoimmune disease is one in which the body releases enzymes that attack its own healthy tissues. In RA, these enzymes destroy the linings of joints. This causes pain, swelling, stiffness, malformation, and reduced movement and function.
Bone cancer:
location and types
May be due to a primary cancer that begins in the bone,
or secondary cancer that spreads to bone from
another body part such as lungs, breast or prostate.
Several types of primary bone cancers, such as:
Leukemia;
Osteosarcoma;
Ewing sarcoma;
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma;
Chondrosarcoma.
Fractures:
A break in the continuity of the bone.
Can be the result of:
High force impact or stress; or
A minimal trauma injury as a result of certain medical
conditions that weaken bones (osteoporosis, bone
cancer, or osteogenesis imperfecta). This fracture is
then properly termed a pathologic fracture.
Myalgia is caused by:
Spasms:
The most common causes of muscle pain are: Tension; Stress; Overuse; Minor injuries. This type of pain is usually localised.
Spasms may affect many different types of muscles in the body, leading to many different symptoms.
Spasms of skeletal muscles are most common, and often due to dehydration and electrolyte abnormalities. The spasm occurs abruptly, is painful, and is usually short-lived. They may be relieved by gently stretching the muscle.
Myositis:
Inflammation of the muscle can be caused by: Infection; Injury; Some medicines; Exercise; Chronic disease.
Infections (in regards to muscle pain):
Systemic muscle pain is more often the result of an infection, an illness or a side effect of a medication. Illnesses such as malaria or the flu can cause muscle pain.
Neuromuscular disorders:
Affect the nerves that control your voluntary muscles. When nerve cells become unhealthy or die, communication between your nervous system and muscles breaks down.
As a result, your muscles weaken and waste away.
The weakness can lead to twitching, cramps, aches and pains, and joint and movement problems.
Examples: Multiple Sclerosis and Muscular Dystrophy.
Carpal tunnel syndrome symptoms:
Fairly common.
Symptoms include numbness, tingling and a burning pain in the hand.
The symptoms start off by occurring at night, often waking the patient, later they may also be experienced during the day and in some cases be so severe they can interfere with the normal use of the hand.
