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Edexcel A Level Geography > Health, Human Rights and Intervention > Flashcards

Health, Human Rights and Intervention Flashcards

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1
Q

Which indicators can measure human development?

A
  • Composite indicators (HDI + Gender Development Index), more accurate by reducing extremes w 3+ indicators but data may be incomplete
  • Single social measures reflect importance and show broader context (literacy, life expectancy etc.)
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2
Q

How is human development measured using GDP?

A
  • Most commonly used measure but gives narrow view of development
  • Lacks regional picture, as no urban/rural contrasts shown, but easy comparison between nations
  • Issues related to purchasing power parity
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3
Q

What factors other than wealth/income provide human contentment?

A
  • Link between humans and ecosystem wellbeing

- Env measures include carbon footprints, Environmental Sustainability/Performance Index

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4
Q

How do env quality, health, life expectancy and human rights aid development?

A

Env - part of UN sustainable goals (pollution, degradation + overuse of resources)
Health - Food security (malnutrition + famine), access to clean water, disease, natural hazards, no of doctors
Life - How long newborns will live, gender divides (childbirth/aids), reflects health/living conditions/econ development
Rights - measured by Freedom Index

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5
Q

How does economic growth deliver other significant goals for development?

A
  • More FDI = TNC investment = income growth = tax revenue, so more spending power + potential - consumerism
  • Some changes can be linked e.g. life expectancy, but others aren’t reliably linked e.g. HR can deteriorate in short term
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6
Q

How is education central to econ development?

A
  • More people know + assert rights
  • Helps females challenge barriers to education
  • Helps access to basic hygiene + healthcare
  • Improves decision making, communication, trade, knowledge and skills
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7
Q

How does education help with human rights?

A
  • Equality law guarantees status and rights
  • Need to ensure govmt spends 4-5% GDP on education
  • Literacy means understanding rights
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8
Q

What does gender equality in education improve?

A
  • Female education + literacy improves health and child mortality
  • Educated women in Iran have children at 24, otherwise at 20
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9
Q

What barriers to education are there?

A

Poverty, (internal) conflict, epidemic, marginalised groups, natural disasters, cultural conservatism

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10
Q

What does global access to education look like and what is UNESCO’s role?

A
  • 60 million children not in primary schl, 65 million not in secondary
  • 70% with equal gender access to primary, 50% to secondary
  • UNESCO promotes fundamental rights, 1 laptop per child policy, US Lincoln Learning Centres
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11
Q

What are variations in health and life expectancy in developing world?

A
  • Between countries: r.ship w GDP/capita, significant variation providing basic services, developed healthcare, lifestyle issues
  • war/civil unrest (fatalities, higher spending on military, destruction of infrastructure)
  • Within: urban/rural contrasts esp deindustrialised cities with poor access to healthcare so higher maternal/infant mortality rates, ethnic variations driven by poverty
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12
Q

Differential access to food

A
  • Poor nutrition linked to TB
  • Informal jobs, primary sector/low paid, landlords exploit
  • Can’t afford food
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13
Q

Differential access to water supply

A
  • Water pollution (typhoid/cholera)

- Water is relatively expensive

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14
Q

Differential access to sanitation

A
  • Large volumes of raw waste, posing health risk, not dealt with/dealt informally
  • Ineffective sewage disposal
  • Turn waste into sanitation blocks built by UN
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15
Q

How does lack of basic needs affect infant and maternal mortality?

A
  • Infant mortality rates in developing world determine life expectancy
  • High infant mortality rates in remote rural areas where maternal healthcare is underfunded + clean water is unavailable
  • Polio and TB
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16
Q

Why does having access to toilets matter?

A
  • Access to school, equal access to sanitary products, period poverty, place of women in society
  • Lower risks, less disease
  • Structure of society and vulnerability
  • Privacy, culture, health and development
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17
Q

How does life expectancy vary in the developed world?

A
  • UK N/S divide, post industrial decline
  • Gradual increase esp men w less physically demanding jobs
  • Highest in Dorset (86), lowest in Glasgow (78)
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18
Q

What is the difference in lifestyles in developed world?

A
  • NI: smoking, heavy industry, poor health spending
  • England: alcohol
  • Wales: men alcohol + labour, female obesity +BP
  • Scotland: shortest LE
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19
Q

Levels of deprivation and availability to medical care in developed world

A
  • Poverty symptoms combine to create health risks, leading to death/lower LE
  • Societal access is polarised w very rich and very poor
  • Wealthier lifestyle carries risk, can afford alcohol and cigarettes
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20
Q

What are significant variations in health and LE within countries? (UK and USA)

A

UK - A&E/NHS is better for trauma and access for poorest
- Not instant healthcare unless rich, state funded w taxation
USA - Private, individually led + targeted, better funded, specialist healthcare
- High insurance premiums, oversubscription of drugs to those with less money, want them to leave asap

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21
Q

How does the relationship between economic and social depend on govmt decisions? (England)

A
  • Aim to meet basic needs + create opps but depends on where you live
  • N has factories shutting and less investment
  • SE has higher income/living prices but lower air quality (can afford to move then commute)
  • Health linked to freedom and LE, other factors inc private medical plans and postcode lottery
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22
Q

What are welfare states?

A
  • State led and funded by taxation
  • Focused on social wellbeing, equality of opportunity, redistribution of wealth
  • N/S divide, advantages of wealth
  • High health and education spending
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23
Q

What are totalitarian regimes?

A
  • Centralised, dictatoria, complex subservience
  • Doesn’t mean you can’t be successful and get social progress
  • Autocratic, stuck in cycle of poverty
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24
Q

What is the role of World Bank, IMF and WTO in defining development policies?

A
  • With global recession, money borrowed from IMF and World Bank
  • But higher oil prices in 70s, debt increased and needed more money to repay
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25
Q

Neo-liberal views of development based on free trade (Chile)

A
  • Chile tried to create Free Trade of the Americas
  • Committed to Pacific Alliance and Trans-Pacific Partnership
  • 70s, companies/copper mines reprivatised
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26
Q

How is there development through adoption of privatisation?

A
  • Competition allowed until economy is dominated by conglomerate which may reduce competition
  • Competition = successful gain more success but less successful become even less successful (inequality grows)
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27
Q

How is there development through deregulation of financial markets?

A
  • World Banks provided money for loans and unpaid debt on condition that govs are forced to continue reforms that favour free-market capitalism
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28
Q

What are recent programmes aimed at improving environmental quality? (Chile)

A
  • Slowed deforestation and began tree planting
  • Increased soil quality supports wheat, oats and grape production
  • 200,000 firewood heaters replaced by gas, paraffin and wood pellet based heaters
  • Improve air quality and CO2 emissions
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29
Q

What are recent programmes aimed at health?

A
  • Ageing population, need more women, youth and immigrants

- President Bachelet (Chile), company taxes paid into early childhood development programmes and maternal mortality

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30
Q

What are recent programmes aimed at education?

A
  • Free nursery places for every child, encourage women and youth into labour forces
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31
Q

What recent programmes in Chile are aimed at human rights?

A
  • $8 billion spent on poorest region of Chile
  • Land returned Mapuchas
  • Not allowed to sell it to non-Mapuche investors
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32
Q

What are the UN Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) aims?

A
  • Agreed in 2000, aim to fight poverty and combat issues preventing human development
  • Width of gap for 8 goals measured annually, evident progress but uneven across regions/countries
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33
Q

Why is progress of MDGs mixed?

A
  • Some progress linked to growing Chinese affluence

- Local development always varies

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34
Q

What is the UN post-2015 development agenda?

A
  • Willingness to accept not all goals can be achieved reduces motivation
  • Written through consultation with major groups + stakeholders in 70 countries
  • 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Dev agreed by world leaders
  • SDGs to end poverty, fight inequality/injustice and tackle CC
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35
Q

Advantages of setting new goals to include sustainable development

A
  • Address root causes of poverty and style of development that works for all
  • Connected to 3 strategic focus areas of UN Dev Programme
  • Sustainable dev, democratic gov + peace building, climate + disaster resilience
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36
Q

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

A
  • 1948, fundamental HRs and moral principles
  • All humans have the right to be respected and seek justice in courts if the right has not been honoured
  • e.g. right to life, liberty and security of person. Everyone has the right to just and favourable conditions of work
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37
Q

How the UDHR is a statement of intent and a framework for foreign policy statements?

A
  • Countries meant to adopt all aspects

- Led to Covenants on Civil and Political Rights, Economic and Social Rights, International Bill of Human Rights

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38
Q

Why have not all states signed the UDHR?

A
  • They’re authoritarian countries and don’t agree

- Executions, slavery and discrimination against women

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39
Q

How does the European Convention on Human Rights help prevent conflict?

A
  • 1950, helped to build a united political Europe
  • Hypocrisy of Western Europe
  • Established a European Court of Human Rights in 1959
  • Led to UK Human Rights Acts in 1998, can assert rights in UK court rather than European
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40
Q

States invoke HRs in international forums and debates

A
  • HRs down 2% from 2005 - 2015
  • Tackle w global communication, pressure on UNm impose sanctions
  • Freedom House measure HRs, open political competition or HRs violated?
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41
Q

How do some states prioritise econ development over HRs? (Uzbekistan)

A
  • Depends on priorities and development level, few put HRs first
  • Prioritise security, energy, trade, finance
  • Uzbekistan: largest cotton producer, children work 2mths/yr
  • Dangers: unknown chemicals, lack of water
42
Q

Why do states defend prioritising econ over HRs?

A
  • Independence from colonial rulers
  • Political resistance
  • Historical loss of civil liberties
43
Q

Why has superpowers/emerging powers transitioning to democratic govmts increased?

A
  • Increased w new political leaders and systems e.g. Madagascars
44
Q

How does degree of democratic freedom vary in emerging/superpowers? (USA)

A
  • More insecurity, extremism
  • More nationalism, populism
  • Democracy index score lower from 2008-15
  • ‘08 recession = unrest and weaker govmt
45
Q

What are the reasons for decline of US democratic freedom and the degree of freedom of speech?

A
  • Began in 1960s, Vietnam war, MLK and Kennedy assassination, Clinton affair, Middle East wars, financial crisis (eroded trust)
  • First amendment, greatly valued (gerrymandering and voter suppression opposes this)
46
Q

How does level of political corruption vary?

A
  • Decisions benefit those funding the politicians, aid goes into politicians’ pockets
  • Causes less trust in govmt due to personal gains, undermines rule of law
  • Breaks down horizontally (colleague copies corruption) + vertically (sees person above has advantages)
  • Less health, safety HRs
47
Q

How is corruption measured?

A
  • Corruption Perceptions Index
  • UN Conventions against corruption
  • anti-corruption summit in London
48
Q

How are high levels of corruption a threat to HRs?

A
  • Corrupt politicians repeatedly elected
  • Obligations to bribes more important than state loyalty
  • Enemies end up in jail
  • Good governance serves the people
49
Q

How is rule of law subverted for corruption?

A
  • Don’t focus on tax, law + security
  • or education, healthcare or welfare state
  • Don’t sacrifice own interest in favour of state
50
Q

Post-colonial states (Myanmar)

A
  • Countries in Africa/Asia have borders that ignore ethnic and cultural groups
  • Significant post-independence tensions e.g. India
  • Myanmar part of Burmese Empire then 1885 British Empire, Japanese then British again
51
Q

How do significant ethnic groups have fewer rights than the dominant group? (Myanmar)

A
  • Various conflicts in Myanmar (gov vs diff ethnic groups e.g. Christians, Rohingya, Chinese)
  • Persecution of Rohingya Muslims as 5% of seats are military representations (can veto constitutional change)
  • Opportunistic insurgent groups vied for political control causing violence
52
Q

What are the significant variations in health/life expectancy in countries due to ethnicity? (USA)

A
  • Indian Health Services looks after 2mil people but off reservation so difficult to access
  • But underfunded, error-prone sterilisation and med records
  • Underskilled, unqualified staff
  • <5% Indigenous ppl have med insurance so can’t access US healthcare
53
Q

How do health/LE variations depend on income levels and inequalities?

A
  • Indigenous ppl driven out of homelands
  • Used as cheap labour
  • Forced exposure to modernisation
54
Q

Differences in rights are reflected by health and education

A
  • 1995, UN recognised Indigenous rights w awareness campaigns
  • 2000, permanent forum on Indigenous issues
  • 2007, Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous people
  • Education performance 10% below white pop
  • Obama’s Generation Indigenous Initiative funds opportunities
55
Q

Why is there demand for equality for women and ethnic groups?

A
  • Growing equality movements, create laws to cover whole country
  • Biggest restrictions linked to religious beliefs (Arab countries, women not equal due to Sharia law but more education available)
  • Ongoing lack of power + decision making plus limited childcare
56
Q

How has women’s equality been important history for many states recently?

A
  • Rwanda: equality of opportunity for women led to participation in all sectors of society inc gov rep (56% MPs are female)
  • Bangladesh: more female education = later marriage, lower birth rates and maternal mortality
  • Progress at diff rates: measure w Gender Equality Index (Europe highest, Africa lowest)
57
Q

What is geopolitical intervention?

A
  • A key part of foreign policy
  • Establishing political power in a certain space
  • Linked to economic strength
  • So, motivation for establishing power ranges from aid to investment
58
Q

What are Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch?

A
  • AI: investigate and expose HR abuses, ensures UDHR is implemented and train ppl to know their rights
  • HRW: looked for Soviet Union compliance w Helsinki Accord to reduce Cold War tensions
59
Q

How do Western governments condemn HRs violations and use them as conditions for aid? (Libya)

A
  • Flights into Libya banned by UN

- Withdraw aid, UN lifted sanctions in 2004 after apology for Lockerbie bombings

60
Q

How do Western governments use HRs as conditions for trade agreements? (Libya)

A
  • US had a trade embargo and EU had one for arms

- Shell deal for £550 mil for gas exploration on Libya’s coast in 2004

61
Q

How are HRs a reason for military interventions which challenge sovereignty? (Libya)

A
  • Italy sent boats and binoclutas to Libya to protect their coastline in 2008
  • UK imprisoned bomber and signed prisoner exchange programme in 2009
62
Q

What is development aid in the form of charitable gifts like?

A
  • Short term impacts of hazards addressed, smaller scale, less players involved
  • Emergency aid/relief
  • Doesn’t narrow development gap but prevents disaster
  • Value compared to other aid?
63
Q

What is development aid from NGOs like? (Oxfam)

A
  • Often viewed positively
  • Small scale, local, sustainable
  • Addresses basic deficiencies in health, education, food + water
  • Relies on donations
  • Helps small number of ppl, doesn’t narrow development gap
  • Oxfam: focuses on hunger/starvation, tries to lift areas out of absolute poverty
64
Q

What is development aid from national governments like?

A
  • Bi-lateral aid (one govmt to another via a government agency)
  • Criticised for having strings attached and being politically motivated
  • Some argue it’s unneeded but there may be a strong, bi-lateral rship between countries
65
Q

What is development aid from NGOs (loans) like?

A
  • Multilateral aid inc. grants, loans, structural adjustment and global programmes (WHO immunisation)
  • Associated with big projects, often viewed negatively but may narrow gap
  • Loans = debt or development
66
Q

How does development aid help deal with life-threatening conditions (malaria)?

A
  • Includes training, healthcare and education
  • Sometimes follows a disaster and provides basic human needs
  • Malaria: nets, medicine, swamp draining
67
Q

How does development aid improve aspects of HRs? (Gender equality)

A
  • Often supports minority and disadvantaged groups
  • Hard to successfully deliver with ethnic/religious conflict
  • Access to healthcare and primary education
  • Gender equality: contraception, assistance with childcare etc.
68
Q

How does development aid encourage dependency?

A
  • Prolongs western influence over developing countries instead of national gov
  • Government needs to provide infrastructure investment and development
69
Q

How does development aid promote corruption and role of the elite?

A
  • Money goes to administration + consultants , doesn’t reach ppl who need it
  • Should send skills/technical assistance instead
  • Elite are a bad recipient of aid but poorest ppl still need help
  • Hard to remove corruption and need LT commitment
70
Q

How does economic development have serious impacts on environment?

A
  • Shell (SPDC) responsible for oil spills
  • Pollution affected livelihoods through farmland and fishing grounds
  • 25-30yrs to clean but no action to do so
71
Q

How does env impact of economic development affect minority groups? (Niger Delta)

A
  • Locals under-benefit and negative impact on livelihoods
  • Poor road quality and underfunded schools/healthcare
  • Several ethnic minorities but Yoruba hold oil revenue who want to keep power with minorities staying poor + powerless
  • Militant groups pressure gov and oil companies for compensation
72
Q

How does economic development affect the minority’s land and culture? (Niger Delta)

A
  • Protests: Ogoni in 1990s against TNCs, Friends of The Earth want to stop exploration
  • SPDC settlement w Ogoni
  • $3000 each and $148mil for education, scholarships and healthcare
  • But corruption and weak regulation, 20% of oil stolen
  • $20bn loss/yr, oil bunkering (illegal retrieval + sell abroad)
73
Q

What are global strategic interests for military interventions?

A
  • Maintain influence in world regions they’d otherwise be excluded from
  • Strategic location in a wider power struggle
  • Puts interventionist on moral high ground, or a cover for motives or ensure access to valuable resources
  • Intervention helps with attacks that could threaten stability and allegiance
  • Justified by humanitarian reasons, stops persecution
74
Q

What is military aid like in Saudi Arabia? (training personnel and weapons sales)

A
  • 2005, fighter planes and £10bn defence equipment, SA investment in UK real estate
  • Pakistan, UK, US trained SA which has 231,000 military personnel
  • UK is largest exporter of arms to SA
  • Obama Administration sold $47.8bn in arms
  • Princes got tens of millions in commissions as arms contracts went to British firms
75
Q

How does Saudi Arabia have questionable HRs?

A
  • Given military aid despite extremism
  • Women punished for rape, detainees tortured, human trafficking, sex segregation, racism, no press freedom
  • Sunni against Shias
  • They have oil, geopolitical interest more important than HRs?
76
Q

What results from direct military intervention?

A
  • Local intervention changes national dynamic
  • Inevitably targets one group, changing cultural dynamics
  • Iraqi military intervention 2002 changed power balance
77
Q

What is part of the “war on terror”?

A
  • Terrorist watchlist with 560 groups
  • Al-Qaeda attacks on USA 2001
  • UK + US air strikes, 2015 onwards
78
Q

How does military intervention promote HRs of minorities?

A
  • May permit aid and humanitarian assitance
  • Sierra Leone was successful
  • Islamic state established with mass executions of minority groups, intervention could prevent this
  • Need to measure HRs
79
Q

How is justification of military intervention compromised by combatant states?

A
  • 18,000 Iraqis imprisoned, abuse and torture in Abu Ghraib prison
  • Deepened resentment towards US, possible increased risk of terrorism
  • Intervention can make things worse, Guantanamo Bay
80
Q

What variables measure success?

A

Government structures, economic systems, health, education, infrastructure

81
Q

How should successful management of refugees be measured?

A
  • Impact of aid
  • Measure migration, detect conflict, poverty + natural hazards
  • Data errors: poor records, porous border, traffickers, smugglers
82
Q

Why are democratic institutions important?

A
  • Equality, freedom, voting
  • Allow justice?
  • Econ development often leads to democracy
83
Q

How is freedom of expression central to development of capitalist societies?

A
  • Measure education, know rights and can express them
  • Economic growth leads to freedom + HRs?
  • People depend on the state in terms of wealth, elites/majority are listened to more than minorities
84
Q

How does Azerbaijan measure success through econ growth?

A
  • Average growth of 15%
  • Poverty from 50% to 5% since 2000
  • But rely on hydro-carbons and key transit on China’s One Belt One Road
85
Q

How does Azerbaijan pay less attention to successful holistic development?

A
  • Politically, Azerbaijan Diplomatic Academy is run by international staff (demand wealth from elite?)
  • Public services has to be reformed to create accountability and avoid a system of bribery
  • Worried about USSR/Ukraine annexation
86
Q

How does Azerbaijan pay less attention to HRs and development of democracy?

A
  • Problems are made by laws + regulations
  • Flawed economies and authoritarian countries want econ development so less money invested in human wellbeing
  • Exploitation to further development?
87
Q

How has development aid been successful? (Ebola in West Africa)

A
  • 15 medicine without borders centres, 1400 tonnes of equipment, 530,000 protective suits
  • In future, remove politicised aid and manage it
  • Focus on health/education, provide regional aid, top-down and bottom-up
  • $2.25 bn from EU
  • Food to counter reduced production and closed borders
88
Q

How do you evaluate success of development aid?

A
  • Did it meet the outcomes? Is there corruption? A lack of governance? Are local people trained? Trickle-down of aid? Dependency on developed countries?
89
Q

How has development aid been unsuccessful? (Liberia)

A
  • President less involved in spending of aid
  • Aid agencies have loose attention to govmt plan e.g. focus on capital
  • Donors don’t tell govmt about all money + aid, fuel with no generators + books with no libraries
  • Aid agencies advertise spending (ChinaAid’s capitol building), Monrovia road by World Bank wasn’t
  • Locals don’t know extent of govmt involvement
90
Q

How have economic inequalities increased despite substantial development aid? (Liberia)

A
  • Govmt education budget $44 mil/yr plus $34 mil from USAid
  • Post-war, cabinet oversaw spending, $5mil/yr for areas without aid
  • Still 4/5th poorest country in the world, 50% households lack food, 75% lack electricity
  • Corruption, 70% of businesses have been asked for bribes, 2/3 had to bribe police
91
Q

How do superpowers use development aid as an extension to their foreign policies?

A
  • They want control over strategic location and alliances (global sphere of influence)
  • This results in exploitation, securing deals and promoting home countries (has strings attached)
  • Intervention creates new forms of need e.g. refugees and IDPs, intervention needs to be broader so it is shared more widely
92
Q

What is the Responsibility to Protect? (helps judge success of superpower development aid)

A
  1. State has legal responsibility to maintain stability and enforce HRs (inc arms shipments)
  2. Have to protect citizens and resolve tension (e.g. involve UN to investigate situation)
  3. State may need help to meet its legal responsibility (e.g. peacekeeping missions with consent of govmt)
93
Q

What are the significant costs of military interventions?

A
  • Death of civilians and destruction of housing + infrastructure
  • Disruption of livelihoods, refugees and IDPs
  • Loss of sovereignty with foreign military intervening
94
Q

What are the ST gains and LT costs of military intervention?

A
  • Prevent HRs from being ignored and protects resources

- Lengthens overall conflict, leading to anger and resentment (increased risk of international terrorism)

95
Q

Describe non-military intervention (UN Peacekeepers)

A
  • Peacekeepers involve impartiality, consent of all parties, non-use of force
  • With more intra-state and civil wars, better governance needs to be built and monitor HRs
  • Troops come from all over the world with 69 operations since 1948
  • Can help in ST and LT
96
Q

How does non-military intervention have a stronger record of improving HRs? (Ivory Coast)

A
  • UN agencies provided humanitarian aid for IDPs and refugees
  • Investigate HR abuses after ending the conflict and produce disarmament plans
97
Q

How does non-military intervention have a stronger record of improving development? (Ivory Coast)

A
  • Development aid continues despite improvement in situation
  • UN Food and Agricultural Organisation provided seeds, tools and fertiliser
  • Development objective to become an emerging economy
  • Structural reform = international and private sector economy, growth of agricultural processing industry
98
Q

What was the lack of action/intervention in Srebrenica?

A
  • No decisive leadership by Western forces
  • Delays due to half-measures, arguing, not noticing early signs of mass slaughter, US + NATO deadlock
  • Waited until voters demanded action
99
Q

What is the impact of no intervention on political development and HRs?

A
  • UN declared it a safe area, protected by French-Canadian then Dutch peacekeeping troops, no weapons allowed
  • Serbia denies genocide
  • Ethnic cleansing: 800 Bosniak men + boys taken from refugee camps and killed
  • Many international tribunals and war crimes court
100
Q

What are the controversies surrounding the ECHR?

A
  • Allows difficult ideas e.g. prisoner votes
  • Erosion of national sovereignty as all countries have to follow same rules
  • Raises question of intervention

Edexcel A Level Geography (15 decks)

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