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Edexcel A Level Geography > Coasts > Flashcards

Coasts Flashcards

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1
Q

Littoral zone

A
  • Ocean, beach and area of land behind it
  • Offshore, nearshore, foreshore, backshore
  • Area of shoreline where land is subject to wave action
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2
Q

Primary and secondary coasts (coastal types)

A
  • Dominated by land processes e.g. deposition from rivers

- Dominated by marin erosion/deposition

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3
Q

Rocky coasts and coastal plains (coastal types)

A
  • Cliffs, creates erosional coasts + varying geodiversity

- Gradually sloping land, deposited sediment

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4
Q

Constructive and destructive waves

A
  • Low height, long wavelength, strong swash (uninterrupted + starts at nearshore) = sediment berm
  • High height, short wavelength, strong backwash
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5
Q

Different wave types in the short term (daily)

A

Plunging waves become swell waves

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6
Q

Wave types in the long term

A
  • Seasonally: constructive common in the summer, destructive in winter
  • Annually: reduced river sediment (dams), coastal management, climate change as storms means winter beach profile
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7
Q

Formation of headlands and bays

A
  • Heavy rainfall creates rivers, causing v shaped valleys in bays, as it erodes at the soft rock
  • Headlands erode as waves are concentrated on it (refraction). Headlands’ sediment then fills the bays, flattening out the coastline - headlands eroded, bays filled in
  • Rising sea level meets back of the bay, eroding it, so coastline is still elongated
  • All of this happens at the same time, but sea level rise disrupts/overrides the balance, so more erosion than deposition
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8
Q

Discordant coasts

A
  • All rock types face the coast (perpendicular to ocean)

- Alternating rock type between hard and soft rock

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9
Q

What are concordant coasts

A
  • Strata run parallel to coastline so waves interact with one rock type
  • Geology might fold into anticlines and synclines
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10
Q

Dalmatian coast

A
  • Tectonics compress layers into anticlines and synclines (plates are made up of multiple types of rocks, so don’t move in the same way, causing deformation)
  • Sub-aerial weathering on anticlines as cracks are made when it’s folded
  • Rivers/glaciers erode synclines
  • Sea water floods synclines, causing parallel anticline ridges (islands) on the coast
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11
Q

Haff coasts

A
  • Long sediment ridges topped by sand dunes
  • Runs parallel to coast offshore
  • Results in series of lagoons (haffs) between ridges and shore
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12
Q

Types of sea level change

A
  • Isostatic: local and usually due to rebound from ice/glaciers melting
  • Eustatic: global, SL affected by tectonics as subduction thrusts the seabed
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13
Q

Emergent coastlines

A

Away from marine processes and now terrestrial instead

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14
Q

Raised beaches

A
  • Above high tide
  • Reflects stages of uplift due to tectonics
  • Smaller particles removed, pebbles/boulders remain
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15
Q

Fossil cliffs

A
  • Nearly vertical cliffs, but inland

- Can find old sea caves and wave cut platforms

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16
Q

What are the LT eustatic sea level changes?

A
  • Tectonics, where crust faulting/folding causes seabed displacement
  • Post glacial, SL rose approximately 100m since last glacial maximum
  • Sea level now slowly rising (CC and thermal expansion)
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17
Q

Submergent coastlines

A
  • Fjords: submerged U shaped valley that’s overdeepened inland, rock lip at seaward entrance
  • Ria: drowned valley due to river erosion
  • Dalmatian: tectonically formed, submerged valleys
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18
Q

Ice formation/melting causing SL change (eustatic)

A
  • During glacial periods

- Ice sheets form on high latitude land with evaporated water locked up as ice, so less water in the sea

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19
Q

Thermal changes cause SL change (eustatic)

A
  • Global temps cause thermal expansion

- Water particles move faster/take up more space, increasing volume of ocean water

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20
Q

Post glacial adjustment causes isostatic SL change

A
  • Rebound after ice sheet melts, land surface lifts out of the sea, SL appears to fall
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21
Q

How does subsidence cause isostatic SL change?

A

Land compressed (by weight of sediment, buildings, glaciers) and SL appears to rise

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22
Q

How does accretion cause isostatic SL change?

A
  • Ice melts leading to sediment being deposited in large river deltas
  • Causes increased weight (crustal sag) and delta subsidence
  • SL appears to rise
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23
Q

Resistant geology

A
  • Ancient rock more resistant due to millions of years of being compressed and compacted
  • Permeability = water exploiting joints, creating more pressure, reducing stability
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24
Q

Bedrock lithology

A
  • Different rocks side by side causes a variety of landforms
  • Igneous: cooled magma
  • Metamorphic: previous rock subjected to heat + pressure
  • Sedimentary: compacted sediment + minerals cemented together (permeable)
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25
Q

How does unconsolidated material affect rates of recession

A
  • Much easier to erode

- Lack of strength and easily exploited by water

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26
Q

Types of geological structures

A
  • Layers become twisted/distorted
  • Jointing: rock fractures
  • Dipping: seaward or landward tilt exposing all or only the newest layers due to tectonics or SL rise, affects types of landforms we get
  • Faulting: a fracture that causes relative rock displacement
  • Folding: anticlines and synclines
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27
Q

Influence of structure on erosion rates

A
  • Seaward dipping makes coast vulnerable to ocean erosion and landslides
  • Fissures can be exploited, leaving microfeatures (more squeezing = more joints and fissures)
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28
Q

History of coast formation

A
  1. The first layer / oldest sediments were deposited at the bottom of the ocean (Sandstones / mudstones / limestone)
  2. The second layer include coal, from when this coast was around the Equator (continental drift)
  3. Sea level rose to cover this – lots of microorganism settled on the ocean floor to build layers of chalk
  4. Sea level fell – leaving rivers to erode away the chalk
  5. Basaltic lava spread on top, particularly into the river valleys
  6. Basalt was weathered / rock breakdown – leaving laterite soil behind, and eventually (sedimentary) laterite rock.
  7. A second layer of basaltic lava flows over the top, cools into hexagonal columns)
  8. That basalt layer gets weathered / breaks down – more laterite soil and more laterite rock
  9. A third layer of basaltic lava flows over the top
  10. Ice age: glaciers eroded away the very surface of that basalt
  11. Tectonics distorts the layers into anticlines and synclines
  12. The glacier eroded material (till) is deposited in the synclines
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29
Q

Alternating strata

A

One layer’s permeability/resistance affects other layers

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30
Q

What are permeability and resistance?

A
  • Permeability depends on how jointed it is

- Resistance is how compact/compressed it is (depends on age)

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31
Q

Complex cliff profiles

A

Sloping, columns, overhanging + mass movement (which influences recession)

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32
Q

Which erosional processes create distinctive coastal landforms?

A

Mainly hydraulic action and abrasion, it exploits weak points

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33
Q

Wave cut notches

A

Rock at sea level of a cliff is eroded into a curved notch

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34
Q

Wave cut platforms

A
  • Result from notches as unsupported cliff collapses and retreats
  • Erosion and weathering can create rock pools or ridges
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35
Q

Cave, arch, stack, stump sequence

A
  • Initially was a headland but was eroded

- Stump indicates where original coastline was

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36
Q

How does differential erosion influence recession rate

A
  • Basalt undercut by marine erosion causing wave cut notch and platform
  • Rate of erosion and debris varies over time
  • Debris/material absorb wave energy on the platform, then break down and used for attrition until it disappears
  • Basalt marine erosion means recession until waves can’t reach cliff base = equilibrium until SL rise
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37
Q

Differential weathering affecting rate of recession

A
  • Sub-aerial weathering at backshore of bays, lower marine energy from refraction so cliff degradation from above
  • Water from rain permeates laterite, not basalt, becomes saturated and heavier, stress>strength
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38
Q

3 types of mechanical weathering

A
  • Crystallisation: saltwater evaporates, salt crystals form in joints, exert pressure, rock forced apart
  • Freeze thaw: water freezes in joints and expands by 9%
  • Shattering: daily temperature change means rocks expand and contract
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39
Q

Chemical weathering

A
  • Seaweed acid: cells break, sulphuric acid dissolves rock as its minerals aren’t bonded
  • Oxidation of iron minerals
  • Carbonation of limestone
  • Hydrolysis forms new clay minerals
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40
Q

Biological weathering

A

Boring molluscs - live on rocks, bore holes to get food which are now weak points for weathering to act

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41
Q

Hydraulic action

A

Force of waves compresses air in cracks and opens them to allow more air in, wave retreats and pressure is released so rock shatters

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42
Q

Attrition

A

Rocks hitting each other and break into smaller, rounder rocks = more surface area for abrasion

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43
Q

Abrasion

A

Force of bits of rock carried by destructive waves thrown against cliffs

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44
Q

What is corrosion?

A
  • Chemical reaction between seawater and rock’s minerals then carried away by backwash
  • Carbonates are more vulnerable
  • Easily gets to small particles and don’t need cracks to exploit
45
Q

Mass movement

A
  • Downslope movement of material under the force of gravity
  • Topple: influenced by geological structure, strata have steep seaward dip, undercutting = instability, then material topples
46
Q

What is blockfall?

A

Hydraulic action or mechanical weathering dislodges blocks of rock and undercutting can lead to large falls

47
Q

Rotational slumping

A

Curved failure surface and huge masses of material slowly rotate downslope

48
Q

What are landslides?

A

Discrete blocks of rock sliding down a flat/linear slip plane (often the bedding plane)

49
Q

Translational landslides

A
  • Mudflow: common in weak rock (clay and unconsolidated sands), heavy rainfall and high tides = saturation, material loses cohesion, slides downslope
  • Block slide: very low angle seaward dip in strata prevents fall but material still slides down towards the sea
50
Q

What distinctive landforms are made by mass movement?

A
  • Mudflows create rills (a shallow channel) and lobes (front edge of deposition)
  • Block slides leave clean scars along the bedding plane
51
Q

Rotational scars

A
  • Bare scar faces between terraces

- Curved, unweathered rock with no vegetation

52
Q

What are talus scree slopes?

A
  • Accumulation of debris from angular rockfall (~40°)

- Larger boulders at core (talus), smaller on top (scree)

53
Q

What is a talus slope?

A
  • Series of rotational slumps, combination of different bits of many taluses
  • Vegetation grows on top and meshes the different parts together, stabilising it after long time
  • Percentage of vegetation shows whether cliff profile is active
  • When material has been there for a while, ocean scrapes away oxidised rock that has changed colour, revealing original rock colour, showing breakdown
54
Q

Terraced cliff profiles

A

Multiple detached slope sections with vegetation intact

55
Q

How is coastal recession caused by physical factors? (Guinea)

A
  • Geological: sand extraction for housing, so not transported to coastline
  • Marine: rising SL of 10cm since 1950, 3m high swell waves during stormy monsoon months, strong waves on soft cliff
56
Q

Coastal recession influenced by human actions (Guinea)

A
  • Mangrove deforestation and diamond mining
  • Dredging: removing material for ports, deep water so energy retained (more erosion)
  • Coastal management: no beach nourishment, very expensive sea walls, interruption of sediment transfer
57
Q

Why aren’t recession rates constant

A
  • Depends on amount of contact time between sea and rock

- Tied in with equilibrium

58
Q

Tides - daily tidal bulge

A
  • Bulge = as the Earth rotates on its axis, water is dragged gravitationally towards the moon
  • Inertia = bulge on opposite side as water hasn’t kept up
  • Other sides are normal (balanced gravity + inertia), so low tide = two parts high, two low
  • Where the bulges are will change over time
59
Q

Tides - alignment

A
  • Highest tide is spring high tide when sun and moon are aligned (every 2 weeks)
    • Gravitational pull at its strongest
    • Storm at same time has high impact
  • Neap tide = sun and moon at a right angle means there are less low and high tides as gravitational pull is at its weakest
  • An anticyclone at the same time means there’s barely any erosion
60
Q

Tides - interaction

A
  • Moon rotation is elliptical

- Perigean spring tides is when the moon and sun align, and the moon is at its closest to earth (4 times a year)

61
Q

LT factors of recession rates

A
  • Wind direction/fetch: largest waves from prevailing wind direction, distance that waves travel uninterrupted (gain energy)
  • Seasons: storm events more likely in winter
  • Weather systems: depressions are low pressure, intense + faster wind speeds, large destructive waves. Anticyclones are high pressure, calmer conditions and smaller waves
  • Storms: very LP depressions and produce large, high energy destructive waves
62
Q

Economic losses due to recession (Trinidad and Tobago)

A
  • Dependent on petrochemical industry on east coast, so threatened by erosion
  • All natural gas pipelines to Guayaguayare (most erosion there)
  • Mayaro beach homes valued at over £700k
  • Up to £5 mil to repair 300m of major road
  • 400,000+ tourists last year for beach and eco tourism industry
63
Q

Social losses due to recession (T&T)

A
  • Loss of local coconut plantations and watermelon/veg cash crops
  • Road damage from flood affects transport/access
  • More erosion lowers value of coastal properties
  • Relocation and community break up
  • Social tensions with individual management
64
Q

Types of sediment transportation

A
  • Traction, saltation, suspension, solution

- Angle of wave attack determines direction

65
Q

Longshore drift

A
  • 30° swash
  • 90° backwash
  • Prevailing wind often determines direction
66
Q

Sediment cell concept

A
  • Stretch of coastline where material movement is mainly self contained
  • Closed: natural barriers stop movement in/out
  • Semi closed: small material can leave
  • Open: wind, tide, currents remove material
67
Q

Sources, transfers and sinks

A
  • Sediment from cliffs, headlands, rivers and lagoons through erosional processes
  • Sediment transported by longshore drift, currents, wind
  • Deposited by gravity settling (drops to bottom of ocean) or flocculation (clay particles attracted to each other and clump)
68
Q

Negative and positive feedback

A
  • Effects of change stop it and erosion, cliff collapse and debris protect from erosion
  • Effects of change encourage it, storms erode dunes and remove vegetation, can be further eroded
69
Q

Dynamic equilibrium

A
  • Despite balance, still constant movement and change

- Inputs balanced by outputs

70
Q

Bayhead beaches

A
  • Swash aligned
  • Waves break at 90° + move sediment into bay = beach
  • Refraction so erosion at headlands and bay is area of deposition
71
Q

Recurved and double spit

A
  • End of spit curved landward into shallower water (bay or inlet), more pronounced by different direction waves
  • Two spits formed in different directions w lagoon behind and tidal gap to prevent them meeting
72
Q

Offshore bars

A
  • Ridge of sand offshore that can be submerged during high tide
  • Formed by riptide currents after destructive waves
73
Q

Barrier beaches/bars

A
  • Sand/shingle beach connects two areas of land w a lagoon behind
  • Spit grows and closes off bay
74
Q

Tombolos

A
  • Sand/shingle bar connecting coastline and offshore island or rock outcrop
  • Formed by refraction around island, creating area of calm water and deposition (longshore drift can play a role)
75
Q

T Test Standard Deviation

A
  • Calculate average of all samples
  • Sum of (Sample subtract sample average)^2
  • Divide by (number of samples - 1)
  • Square root the answer
76
Q

T Test

A
  • Outcome: ignore +/- and then compare with critical value (0.05)
  • If calculated value is higher than critical value, accept hypothesis and reject null hypothesis (it is significant)
77
Q

Halophyte and xerophyte vegetation

A

H - Plants adapted to growing in saline conditions and are salt tolerant
X - Plants that need very little water e.g. dunes where drainage means sandy soil doesn’t retain much water

78
Q

Vegetation stabilisation

A

Holds sandy coastline together with roots and encourages deposition (reduce wind speed)

79
Q

Dune successional development

A
  • Embryo dunes
  • Fore dunes: inland, sand accumulates and salt tolerant vegetation
  • Yellow dunes: first main ridge, 30/40 yrs old, well established vegetation
  • Grey dunes: more organic matter, has soil
  • Heath dunes: deciduous woodland, moist soil w more nutrients
  • First 3 are mobile dunes that can be disturbed/destroyed
80
Q

Salt marsh successional development

A

Algae on bare mud, glasswort to stabilise, carpet of vegetation, height increase, climax

81
Q

Local factors that increase flood risk

A
  • Height: near or at SL, reclaimed land can exist below SL w sea walls
  • Subsidence: when ground sinks/collapses, naturally happens through recently deposited sediment being compacted
  • Vegetation removal: stability reduced, mangroves reduce wave height by 40%, reduces storm surge height by 0.5m
82
Q

Storm surge flooding short term impacts

A
  • Intense rainfall contributes to flooding

- Lower atmospheric pressure = SL rise

83
Q

Climate change increases coastal flood risk

A
  • Warmer oceans and additional heat energy
  • Lower air pressure, faster winds, high doming of seawater and larger storm waves
  • Kiribati: sea surface temp changes and bleached coral reefs cause stress in coral polyps and then expelled algae, so loss of protection
84
Q

Climate change increase frequency/magnitude of storms and SL rise (Bangladesh)

A
  • Storm surges but not tropical storms, more winds+waves and subsequent coastal erosion
  • 55cm rise by 2011
85
Q

How is the magnitude of threat of climate increasing flooding uncertain?

A
  • Poor global data on average wind speed + wave height and poor forecasting
  • Human related drivers: land use change, coastal development and pollution
  • More people in lowland coasts
86
Q

Mitigation and adaptation for CC causing flood risk

A
  • solar panels and local food sources

- sea walls, rainwater harvesting and buy new land

87
Q

Coastal flooding/storm surge events have economic and social consequences (Netherlands)

A
  • 70% of GDP at risk from flooding, €7 billion water management cost and incremental €2 billion yearly
  • Risk but tech allows econ to thrive and survive
  • 66% of population live in flood prone areas
88
Q

Flooding and storm surges have consequences for coastal communities in developed countries (Netherlands)

A
  • To what extent do they have the capacity to absorb new technology- changes mindset to solving problems
  • Engineering system holds back water at end of Rhine Delta that people live on
89
Q

Climate change creates environmental refugees

A
  • SLR ruins env resources necessary for subsistence lifestyles
  • Saltwater contaminates and waste accumulates
  • Coastal erosion destroys housing and arable land
90
Q

Environmental refugees in coastal areas

A
  • NZ refused residency status to Kiribati residents, just there for labour (accepted exceptional humanitarian grounds)
  • Move country due to risks of climate change, want to be safe
91
Q

Hard engineering in Portballintrae

A
  • Failed to stop problem, instead reinforced it
  • Groynes since 1904 but centre of bay continued to retreat, Leslie’s pier got in the way with refraction around it
  • Sand nourishment/barrier at cliff base but beach continued to fall
  • Protects 5,000 residents and 15,000 tourists (main income)
92
Q

Economic costs of hard engineering in Portballintrae

A

£1.5 million preliminary investigation and £30 mil proposed cost
Beachfront closed for 2 years, temp beach hut closure and temp restricted car park access

93
Q

Hard engineering alters physical processes and systems

A

Disrupts geography
Sand beaches now boulder orientated
Waves attack centre of bay
Leslie’s pier diffracts waves, creating low energy zone in shadow

94
Q

Soft engineering

A

Works with natural systems to reduce coastal erosion + flood threat and helps to protect vital natural ecosystem services

95
Q

Beach nourishment

A
  • Artificially replenish sediment lost through erosion and longshore drift
  • Enlarges it to attract tourists and dissipate wave energy at backshore
96
Q

What is cliff regrading and drainage?

A
  • Lower angle of rest for stability and supported at base with hard engineering
  • Vegetation to trap/stabilise unconsolidated sediment, drainage reduces porewater pressures and mass movement risk
97
Q

Dune stabilisation

A

Low impact + cost using old trees w fencing, replanting marram grass, reducing trampling, educating with info boards and boardwalks

98
Q

Sustainable management

A
  • Managing the wider coastal zone
  • People and their livelihood + wellbeing
  • Minimising environmental impact
99
Q

Sustainable management meant to cope with future threats of increased storm events and rising SL (French Polynesia)

A
  • Rare but devastating tropical cyclones
  • Increased erosion + flooding
  • SL rise will inundate the island
  • Uncertainty about time and scale of SL rise
100
Q

Sustainable management causes local conflicts in many countries (French Polynesia)

A
  • Solutions might be opposite of what people want, creating social justice issues
  • France as an ex ruler, NZ doesn’t want env refugees and China is a trade partner
101
Q

Mitigation and adaptation needed for future stability (French Polynesia)

A
  • Tackle cause of issues, NGO improve sustainability so more fish + food security + different attitudes
  • Reduce and deal w effects of what has already happened, env refugees’ lives have been affected e.g. land degradation so they leave
102
Q

How to evaluate coastal management

A
  • Does it consider how the Environment will change over different timescales?
  • Has all Legislation been accounted for?
  • Is this based on our best Scientific knowledge?
  • Have All stakeholders been consulted?
103
Q

Coastal management uses littoral (sediment) cells to manage extended coastlines

A
  • LT, all stakeholders, natural processes considered
  • Managed as a unit w sources, flows and sinks
  • Geopolitical situation across Mediterranean makes collaboration complex e.g. cultural differences + migration from Syrian crisis
104
Q

Countries are developing sustainable schemes and using holistic ICZM strategies

A
  • Local projects involve ecological alteration, so ICZM changes lifestyle to environmentalism?
  • Very top-down approach so doesn’t look at poorest communities
  • Bottom-up needs + objections are obvious to locals
  • Becomes complicated w too many factors + stakeholders
  • Mainly govmt decisions
105
Q

No active intervention, strategic realignment, hold the line, advance the line (in order)

A
  • coast allowed to erode and flood
  • allows natural movement but directs it to certain areas
  • coastal defence
  • seaward defence and land reclamation
106
Q

Cost Benefit Analysis and Environmental Impact Assessment

A
  • CBA: Helps to decide if defending a coastline is economically justifiable
  • EIA: Identify ST impacts of construction on the env, LT impacts of building new defences or changing policies
107
Q

Perceived winners and losers

A
  • Remain financially stable, communities + services remain in place, wildlife habitats are conserved
  • Lose property, relocate and community splits up, destruction/disruption of habitats
    Scale of challenge must be matched by scale of response
108
Q

Policy decisions cause conflict in Chittagong

A
  • No compensation for property loss
  • Increased stress on coastline w rapid development/urbanisation
  • Management can’t keep up w fast tourist development (haphazard + less holistic)
  • Funding depends on grants and loans, fewer resources = less resistant structures
  • Faster erosion w tropical cyclone frequency, dams remove sediment supply, removal of mangroves reduce stability

Edexcel A Level Geography (15 decks)

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